2 EXTREMELY RARE BAHAI HANDWRITTEN LETTERS ʻAbdu'l-Bahá SCARCE BAHA'I BAHAI WOW

---

---

When you click on links to various merchants on this site and make a purchase, this can result in this site earning a commission. Affiliate programs and affiliations include, but are not limited to, the eBay Partner Network.

---

2 EXTREMELY RARE BAHAI HANDWRITTEN LETTERS ʻAbdu'l-Bahá SCARCE BAHA'I BAHAI WOW:
$15000.00

---

2 SCARCE HANDWRITTEN LETTERS BY ABDUL BAHA
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá KCB, born ʻAbbás, was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh and served as head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921.
Based on the images , these are two distinct Bahá'í Tablets (Lawḥ) written in Persian/Arabic.Here is a breakdown of what each document is:Document 1* The Author: The handwriting is distinctly that of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. It features his characteristic Shikastah Nasta'liq script—fast, fluid, and diagonal.* The Signature: In Image 1, the signature at the bottom left of the text block is the standard stylized signature of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (often signed as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá ‘Abbás).* The Recipient: Image 4 shows the envelope or cover slip, which reads "Janáb-i-‘Abd al-Wahháb" (To the honor of ‘Abd al-Wahháb).* The Content: * The text is written in the Chalipa style (diagonal writing), which was a standard convention for polite and respectful correspondence in Persian culture. * The header (invocation) at the top of Image 1 likely reads "Huwa'l-Abhá" (He is the All-Glorious), a standard Bahá'í opening. * This is a personal Tablet addressed to a Bahá'í believer named ‘Abd al-Wahháb, likely offering encouragement, prayers, or answers to questions he had sent.
Document 2* The Author: The handwriting matches that of the first document ('Abdu’l-Bahá).* The Layout: This page (Image 5) contains two separate shorter texts or excerpts on a single sheet.* Top Section: * Header: The Arabic invocation at the top reads "Huwa al-Náṭiq..." (He is the Speaker...). This specific header was often used by Bahá’u’lláh, but the handwriting remains that of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. It is possible ‘Abdu’l-Bahá is copying a Tablet of His Father or writing on His behalf. * Recipient: The text begins with "Yá Sulaymán" (O Solomon). This indicates the Tablet is addressed to a believer named Sulaymán.
(Ḥájí SulaymánKhánwas an influential follower of the Báb who played a critical role by rescuing the remains of the Báb and Anís following their martyrdom. The son of YaḥyáKhán, an officer in the service of the government, Ḥájí SulaymánKhán from a young age showed disinterest in rank or office. As a young man he traveled to Karbilá where he met Siyyid Káẓim and became an supporter of his. Upon hearing of the Message of the Báb he joined the community of followers, and had endeavored to travel to Ṭabarsí in support of the defenders of that fort, but arrived too late to help. Though intimately associated with the Bábís, he and his father held such influence that the Amír-Niẓám preferred to overlook this association, and was able to travel unmolested by government officials and the common people.[)
* Bottom Section: * Header: The invocation reads "Huwa al-Aqdas al-A‘zam al-Abhá" (He is the Most Holy, the Most Great, the All-Glorious). This is a very high-status invocation referring to God or the Manifestation. * The text appears to address a believer, possibly mentioned in the first line as "Janáb-i..." though the specific name is harder to make out without high-resolution zoom (possibly Fakhri or similar).Historical Context & Significance* Who wrote them? ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was known as the "Master" and wrote thousands of Tablets to individuals all over the world (from Iran to America) during his ministry. He was a master calligrapher, and documents in his own hand are considered holy relics by Bahá'ís.* What are they? These are spiritual letters. They typically contain prayers, ethical guidance, and encouragement for the recipient to remain steadfast in their faith.* Authenticity: Visually, the ink flow, paper aging, script style, and signature are consistent with authentic Tablets from the early 20th century (roughly 1900–1920s).If you are the owner of these, they are historically significant items within the Bahá'í Faith. "Janáb-i-‘Abd al-Wahháb" and "Sulaymán" were likely early believers in KCB (/əbˈdʊl bəˈhɑː/; Persian: عبد البهاء‎, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (Persian: عباس), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh and served as head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921.[2] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was later canonized as the last of three "central figures" of the religion, along with Baháʼu'lláh and the Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháʼí sacred literature.[3]
He was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family. At the age of eight his father was imprisoned during a government crackdown on the Bábí Faith and the family's possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. His father was exiled from their native Iran, and the family went to live in Baghdad, where they stayed for nine years. They were later called by the Ottoman state to Istanbul before going into another period of confinement in Edirne and finally the prison-city of ʻAkká (Acre). ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained a political prisoner there until the Young Turk Revolution freed him in 1908 at the age of 64. He then made several journeys to the West to spread the Baháʼí message beyond its middle-Eastern roots, but the onset of World War I left him largely confined to Haifa from 1914 to 1918. The war replaced the openly hostile Ottoman authorities with the British Mandate, who appointed him a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his help in averting famine following the war.
In 1892, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. He faced opposition from virtually all his family members, but held the loyalty of the great majority of Baháʼís around the world. His Tablets of the Divine Plan helped galvanize Baháʼís in North America into spreading the Baháʼí teachings to new territories, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Baháʼí administrative order. Many of his writings, prayers and letters are extant, and his discourses with the Western Baháʼís emphasize the growth of the religion by the late 1890s.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's given name was ʻAbbás. Depending on context, he would have gone by either Mírzá ʻAbbás (Persian) or ʻAbbás Effendi (Turkish), both of which are equivalent to the English Sir ʻAbbás. During most of his time as head of the Bahá'í Faith, he used and preferred the title of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("servant of Bahá", a reference to his father). He is commonly referred to in Baháʼí texts as "The Master".
Early lifeʻAbdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia (now Iran) on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH),[4] the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the very same night on which the Báb declared his mission.[5] Born with the given name of ʻAbbás,[3] he was named after his grandfather Mírzá ʻAbbás Núrí, a prominent and powerful nobleman.[6] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's early years were shaped by his father's prominent role within the Bábí community. As a child, he fondly recalled interactions with the Bábí Táhirih, describing how she would take him on her knee, caress him, and engage in heartfelt conversations, leaving a lasting impression on him.[7] His childhood was characterized by happiness and carefree moments. The family's residences in Tehran and the countryside were not only comfortable but also beautifully adorned. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá loved playing in the gardens with his close younger sister, fostering a strong bond between them.[8] Alongside his younger siblings – a sister, Bahíyyih, and a brother, Mihdí – he experienced a life of privilege, joy, and comfort.[6] During his formative years, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá observed his parents' commitment to various charitable endeavors, including the conversion of part of their home into a hospital ward for women and children.[9]
Due to a life largely marked by exile and imprisonment, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had limited opportunities for formal schooling. In his youth, it was customary for children of nobility, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, not to attend conventional schools. Instead, noblemen typically received brief education at home, focusing on subjects such as scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy, and basic mathematics, with an emphasis on preparing for life within royal courts.
While he did spend a short period at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for a single year,[10] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá did not undergo formal education. His mother and uncle took on the responsibility of his early education, but the primary source of his learning was his father.[11][12] In 1890 Edward Granville Browne described how ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was "one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans...scarcely be found even amongst the eloquent."[13]
According to contemporary accounts ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was an eloquent and charming child.[14] At the age of seven, he faced a severe health challenge when he contracted tuberculosis, and his prognosis suggested death.[15] Though the illness abated,[16] this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with recurrent bouts of various illnesses that would persist throughout his life.[17]
One event that affected ʻAbdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was eight years old; this circumstance led to a considerable decline in the family's economic standing, subjecting him to poverty and exposing them to hostility from other children in the streets.[5] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Baháʼu'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the Síyáh-Chál.[6] He described how "I saw a dark, steep place. We entered a small, narrow doorway, and went down two steps, but beyond those one could see nothing. In the middle of the stairway, all of a sudden we heard His [Baháʼu'lláh's]…voice: 'Do not bring him in here', and so they took me back".[16]
BaghdadBaháʼu'lláh was eventually released from prison, but ordered into exile, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then eight years old, joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter (January to April)[18] of 1853.[16] During the journey ʻAbdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. After a year of difficulties Baháʼu'lláh absented himself rather than continue to face the conflict with Mirza Yahya and secretly secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in April 1854 a month before ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's tenth birthday.[18] Mutual sorrow resulted in him, his mother and sister becoming constant companions.[19] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was particularly close to both, and his mother took active participation in his education and upbringing.[20] During the two-year absence of his father ʻAbdu'l-Bahá took up the duty of managing the affairs of the family,[21] before his age of maturity (14 in middle-Eastern society)[22] and was known to be occupied with reading and, at a time of hand-copied scriptures being the primary means of publishing, was also engaged in copying the writings of the Báb.[23] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also took an interest in the art of horse riding and, as he grew, became a renowned rider.[24]
In 1856, news of an ascetic carrying on discourses with local Súfí leaders that seemed to possibly be Baháʼu'lláh reached the family and friends. Immediately, family members and friends went to search for the elusive dervish – and in March[18] brought Baháʼu'lláh back to Baghdad.[25] On seeing his father, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá fell to his knees and wept loudly "Why did you leave us?", and this followed with his mother and sister doing the same.[24][26] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá soon became his father's secretary and shield.[5] During the sojourn in the city ʻAbdu'l-Bahá grew from a boy into a young man. He was noted as a "remarkably fine looking youth",[24] and remembered for his charity.[5] Having passed the age of maturity ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was regularly seen in the mosques of Baghdad discussing religious topics and the scripture as a young man. Whilst in Baghdad, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá composed a commentary at the request of his father on the Muslim tradition of "I was a Hidden Treasure" for a Súfí leader named ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá.[5][27] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fifteen or sixteen at the time and ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá regarded the more than 11,000-word essay as a remarkable feat for somebody of his age.[5] In 1863, in what became known as the Garden of Ridván, his father Baháʼu'lláh announced to a few that he was the manifestation of God and He whom God shall make manifest whose coming had been foretold by the Báb. On day eight of the twelve days, it is believed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was the first person Baháʼu'lláh revealed his claim (right) with his brother Mírzá MihdíIn 1863, Baháʼu'lláh was summoned to Istanbul, and thus his family, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then eighteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey.[30] The journey to Constantinople was another wearisome journey,[24] and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá helped feed the exiles.[31] It was here that his position became more prominent amongst the Baháʼís.[3] This was further solidified by Baháʼu'lláh's tablet of the Branch in which he constantly exalts his son's virtues and station.[32] The family were soon exiled to Adrianople and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá went with the family.[3] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá again suffered from frostbite.[24]
In Adrianople ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family – in particular to his mother.[24] At this point ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was known by the Baháʼís as "the Master", and by non-Baháʼís as ʻAbbás Effendi ("Effendi" signifies "Sir"). It was in Adrianople that Baháʼu'lláh referred to his son as "the Mystery of God".[24] The title of "Mystery of God" symbolises, according to Baháʼís, that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá is not a manifestation of God but how a "person of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely harmonized".[33][34] Baháʼu'lláh gave his son many other titles such as G͟husn-i-Aʻzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"),[a] the "Branch of Holiness", "the Center of the Covenant" and the apple of his eye.[3] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("the Master") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Baháʼu'lláh. It was, according to Baháʼís, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the family were allowed to be exiled together.[24]
ʻAkká
Prison in ʻAkká where Baháʼu'lláh and his family were housedAt the age of 24, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was clearly chief-steward to his father and an outstanding member of the Baháʼí community.[30] Baháʼu'lláh and his family were – in 1868 – exiled to the penal colony of Acre, Palestine where it was expected that the family would perish.[35] Arrival in ʻAkká was distressing for the family and exiles.[3] They were greeted in a hostile manner by the surrounding population and his sister and father fell dangerously ill.[5] When told that the women were to sit on the shoulders of the men to reach the shore, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá took a chair and carried the women to the bay of ʻAkká.[24] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was able to procure some anesthetic and nursed the sick.[24] The Baháʼís were imprisoned under horrendous conditions in a cluster of cells covered in excrement and dirt.[5] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá himself fell dangerously ill with dysentery,[5] however a sympathetic soldier permitted a physician to help cure him.[24] The population shunned them, the soldiers treated them the same, and the behaviour of Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfahani (an Azali) did not help matters.[6][36] Morale was further destroyed with the accidental death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's youngest brother Mírzá Mihdí at the age of 22.[24] The grieving ʻAbdu'l-Bahá kept a night-long vigil beside his brother's body.[6][24]
Later in ʻAkkáOver time, he gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Baháʼí exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of ʻAkká (Acre) that, according to the Baháʼís, they recognized the innocence of the Baháʼís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased.[37] Four months after the death of Mihdí the family moved from the prison to the House of ʻAbbúd.[38] The people of ʻAkká started to respect the Baháʼís and in particular, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was able to arrange for houses to be rented for the family, and the family later moved to the Mansion of Bahjí around 1879 when an epidemic caused the inhabitants to flee.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá soon became very popular in the penal colony and Myron Henry Phelps a wealthy New York lawyer described how "a crowd of human beings...Syrians, Arabs, Ethiopians, and many others",[39] all waited to talk and receive ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[40] He undertook a history of the Bábí religion through publication of A Traveller's Narrative (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh) in 1886,[41] later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University by the agency of Edward Granville Browne.
Marriage and family lifeWhen ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a young man, speculation was rife amongst the Baháʼís as to whom he would marry.[5][42] Several young girls were seen as marriage prospects but ʻAbdu'l-Bahá seemed disinclined to marriage.[5] On 8 March 1873, at the urging of his father,[6][43] the twenty-eight-year-old ʻAbdu'l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1847–1938) a twenty-five-year-old from an upper-class family of the city.[44] Her father was Mírzá Muḥammad ʻAlí Nahrí of Isfahan, an eminent Baháʼí with prominent connections.[b][5][42] Fátimih was brought from Persia to ʻAkká after both Baháʼu'lláh and his wife Navváb expressed an interest in her to marry ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[5][44][45] After a wearisome journey from Isfahán to Akka she finally arrived accompanied by her brother in 1872.[5][45] The young couple were betrothed for about five months before the marriage itself commenced. In the meantime, Fátimih lived in the home of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's uncle Mírzá Músá. According to her later memoirs, Fátimih fell in love with ʻAbdu'l-Bahá on seeing him. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá himself had showed little inkling to marriage until meeting Fátimih;[45] who was entitled Munírih by Baháʼu'lláh.[6] Munírih is a title meaning "Luminous".[46]
The marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son Mihdí Effendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum, Fuʼádíyyih K͟hánum (d. few years old), Rúhangíz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d. 1887 aged 5), Túbá K͟hánum, Rúhá K͟hánum (mother of Munib Shahid), and Munnavar K͟hánum. The death of his children caused ʻAbdu'l-Bahá immense grief – in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle.[47] The surviving children (all daughters) were; Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá K͟hánum (1880–1959) Rúḥá K͟hánum and Munavvar K͟hánum (d. 1971).[5] Baháʼu'lláh wished that the Baháʼís follow the example of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy.[45][46][48] The marriage of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous,[45] from advice of his father and his own wish,[45][46] legitimised the practice of monogamy[46] to a people who hitherto had regarded polygamy as a righteous way of life.[45][46]
Early years of his ministryAfter Baháʼu'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the Will and Testament of Baháʼu'lláh named ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baháʼu'lláh's writings.[c][49][2]
Baháʼu'lláh designates his successor with the following verses:
The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the Aghsán, the Afnán and My Kindred to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have revealed in Our Most Holy Book: 'When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root.' The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. Thus have We graciously revealed unto you Our potent Will, and I am verily the Gracious, the All-Powerful. Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch [Muḥammad ʻAlí] to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. He is in truth the Ordainer, the All-Wise. We have chosen 'the Greater' after 'the Most Great', as decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All-Informed.
— Baháʼu'lláh (1873–1892)This translation of the Kitáb-i-ʻAhd is based on a solecism, however, as the terms Akbar and Aʻzam do not mean, respectively, 'Greater' and 'Most Great'. Not only do the two words derive from entirely separate triconsonantal roots (Akbar from k-b-r and Aʻzam from ʻ-z-m), but the Arabic language possesses the elative, a stage of gradation, with no clear distinction between the comparative and superlative.[50] In the Will and Testament ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, Muhammad ʻAlí, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad ʻAlí became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Badiʻu'llah and Ḍíyáʼu'llah.[4] He began correspondence with Baháʼís in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[51] While most Baháʼís followed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, a handful followed Muhammad ʻAlí including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim George Kheiralla, an early Baháʼí missionary to America.[52]
Muhammad ʻAlí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse ʻAbdu'l-Bahá of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baháʼu'lláh.[53] It was at this time that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.[54][55] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian.[2] With the exception of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, Muhammad ʻAlí was supported by all of the remaining male relatives of Baháʼu'lláh, including Shoghi Effendi's father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází.[56] However Muhammad ʻAlí's and his families statements had very little effect on the Baháʼís in general – in the ʻAkká area, the followers of Muhammad ʻAlí represented six families at most, they had no common religious activities,[57] and were almost wholly assimilated into Muslim society.[58]
First Western pilgrims
Early Western Baháʼí pilgrims. Standing left to right: Charles Mason Remey, Sigurd Russell, Edward Getsinger and Laura Clifford Barney; Seated left to right: Ethel Jenner Rosenberg, Madam Jackson, Shoghi Effendi, Helen Ellis Cole, Lua Getsinger, Emogene HoaggBy the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started coming to Akka on pilgrimage to visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Baháʼís raised up in the West had met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[59] The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western Baháʼís sporadically visited ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s.[60] The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's confinement was tightened.[61] During the next decade ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Baháʼís around the world, helping them to teach the religion; the group included May Ellis Bolles in Paris, Englishman Thomas Breakwell, American Herbert Hopper, French Hippolyte Dreyfus [fr], Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, and American Laura Clifford Barney.[62] It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.[63]
Ministry, 1901–1912During the final years of the 19th century, while ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to ʻAkka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Baháʼu'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years.[64] With the increase of pilgrims visiting ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad ʻAlí worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901.[2][65] By 1902, however, due to the Governor of ʻAkka being supportive of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was confined to the city.[65] In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad ʻAlí, including Badiʻu'llah and Siyyid ʻAliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad ʻAli and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad ʻAli's plots and noting that what was circulating about ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fabrication.[66][67]
From 1902 to 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Báb that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was directing, he started to put into execution two different projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Baháʼí House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.[68] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the work so that the house of the Báb would be restored to the state that it was at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844;[68] he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih.[69]
During this period, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá communicated with a number of Young Turks, opposed to the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, including Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha and Midhat Pasha, in an attempt to disseminate Baháʼí thought into their political ideology.[70] He emphasized Baháʼís "seek freedom and love liberty, hope for equality, are well-wishers of humanity and ready to sacrifice their lives to unite humanity" but on a more broad approach than the Young Turks. Abdullah Cevdet, one of the founders of the Committee of Union and Progress who considered the Baháʼí Faith an intermediary step between Islam and the ultimate abandonment of religious belief, would go on trial for defense of Baháʼís in a periodical he founded.[71][72]
‛Abdu'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders as well, including such individuals as Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey and Hasan Bedreddin. The latter, who was involved in the overthrow of Sultan Abdülaziz, is commonly known as Bedri Paşa or Bedri Pasha and is referred to in Persian Baháʼí sources as Bedri Bey (Badri Beg). He was a Baháʼí who translated ‛Abdu'l-Baha's works into French.[73]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also met Muhammad Abduh, one of the key figures of Islamic Modernism and the Salafi movement, in Beirut, at a time when the two men were both opposed to the Ottoman ulama and shared similar goals of religious reform.[74][75] Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would attend Abduh's study sessions.[76] Regarding the meetings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Muhammad ʻAbduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that "His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ʻAbdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member."[77]
Due to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's political activities and alleged accusation against him by Muhammad ʻAli, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1905, with the result that he was almost exiled to Fezzan.[78][79][80] In response, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his tariqa had guided many Americans to Islam.[81] The next few years in ʻAkka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed.[69]
Journeys to the West
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, during his trip to the United StatesMain article: ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's journeys to the WestThe 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his freedom was to visit the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh in Bahji.[82] While ʻAbdu'l-Bahá continued to live in ʻAkka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb.[82] In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three-year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baháʼí message.[2]
From August to December 1911, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baháʼí communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.[83]
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baháʼí believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity."[84] He instead travelled on a slower craft, the RMS Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason.[85] After hearing of the Titanic's sinking on 16 April he was quoted as saying "I was asked to sail upon the Titanic, but my heart did not prompt me to do so."[84] While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On 5 December 1912 he set sail back to Europe.[83]
During his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in Baháʼís' homes, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people.[86] During his talks he proclaimed Baháʼí principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice.[86] He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races.[86]
His visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles.[86] In Boston newspaper reporters asked ʻAbdu'l-Bahá why he had come to America, and he stated that he had come to participate in conferences on peace and that just giving warning messages is not enough.[87] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to Montreal provided notable newspaper coverage; on the night of his arrival the editor of the Montreal Daily Star met with him and that newspaper along with The Montreal Gazette, Montreal Standard, Le Devoir and La Presse among others reported on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's activities.[88][89] The headlines in those papers included "Persian Teacher to Preach Peace", "Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices", and "Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth."[89] The Montreal Standard, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him.[88] His 1912 visit to Montreal also inspired humourist Stephen Leacock to parody him in his bestselling 1914 book Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich.[90] In Chicago one newspaper headline included "His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha,"[89] and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the Palo Altan.[91]
Back in Europe, he visited London, Edinburgh, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on 12 June 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.[83]
On 23 February 1914, at the eve of World War I, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá hosted Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, a member of the Rothschild banking family who was a leading advocate and financier of the Zionist movement, during one of his early trips to Palestine.[92]
Final years (1914–1921)
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá on Mount Carmel with pilgrims in 1919During World War I (1914–1918) ʻAbdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine and was unable to travel. He carried on a limited correspondence, which included the Tablets of the Divine Plan, a collection of 14 letters addressed to the Baháʼís of North America, later described as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith. The letters assign a leadership role for the North American Baháʼís in spreading the religion around the planet.
Haifa was under real threat of Allied bombardment, enough that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and other Baháʼís temporarily retreated to the hills east of ʻAkka.[93]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was also under threats from Cemal Paşa, the Ottoman military chief who at one point expressed his desire to crucify him and destroy Baháʼí properties in Palestine.[94] The swift Megiddo offensive of the British General Allenby swept away the Turkish forces in Palestine before harm was done to the Baháʼís, and the war was over less than two months later.
Post-war period
The elderly ʻAbdu'l-BaháThe conclusion of World War I led to the openly hostile Ottoman authorities being replaced by the more friendly British Mandate, allowing for a renewal of correspondence, pilgrims, and development of the Baháʼí World Centre properties.[95] It was during this revival of activity that the Baháʼí Faith saw an expansion and consolidation in places like Egypt, the Caucasus, Iran, Turkmenistan, North America and South Asia under the leadership of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.
The end of the war brought about several political developments that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá commented on. The League of Nations formed in January 1920, representing the first instance of collective security through a worldwide organization. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had written in 1875 for the need to establish a "Union of the nations of the world", and he praised the attempt through the League of Nations as an important step towards the goal. He also said that it was "incapable of establishing Universal Peace" because it did not represent all nations and had only trivial power over its member states.[96][97] Around the same time, the British Mandate supported the ongoing immigration of Jews to Palestine. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá mentioned the immigration as a fulfillment of prophecy, and encouraged the Zionists to develop the land and "elevate the country for all its inhabitants... They must not work to separate the Jews from the other Palestinians."[98]ʻAbdu'l-Bahá at his investiture ceremony as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, April 1920The war also left the region in famine. In 1901, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had purchased about 1704 acres of scrubland near the Jordan river and by 1907 many Baháʼís from Iran had begun sharecropping on the land. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received between 20 and 33% of their harvest (or cash equivalent), which was shipped to Haifa. With the war still raging in 1917, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received a large amount of wheat from the crops, and also bought other available wheat and shipped it all back to Haifa. The wheat arrived just after the British captured Palestine, and as such was allowed to be widely distributed to allay the famine.[99][100] For this service in averting a famine in Northern Palestine he received the honour of Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire at a ceremony held in his honor at the home of the British Governor on 27 April 1920.[101][102] He was later visited by General Allenby, King Faisal (later King of Iraq), Herbert Samuel (High Commissioner for Palestine), and Ronald Storrs (Military Governor of Jerusalem).[103]
Death and funeral
Funeral of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Haifa, British Mandate-PalestineʻAbdu'l-Bahá died on Monday, 28 November 1921, sometime after 1:15 a.m. (27th of Rabi' al-awwal, 1340 AH).[104]
Then Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill telegraphed the High Commissioner for Palestine, "convey to the Baháʼí Community, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, their sympathy and condolence." Similar messages came from Viscount Allenby, the Council of Ministers of Iraq, and others.[105]
On his funeral, which was held the next day, Esslemont notes:
... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues.[106]
Among the talks delivered at the funeral, Shoghi Effendi records Stewart Symes giving the following tribute:
Most of us here have, I think, a clear picture of Sir ʻAbdu'l‑Bahá ʻAbbás, of His dignified figure walking thoughtfully in our streets, of His courteous and gracious manner, of His kindness, of His love for little children and flowers, of His generosity and care for the poor and suffering. So gentle was He, and so simple, that in His presence one almost forgot that He was also a great teacher, and that His writings and His conversations have been a solace and an inspiration to hundreds and thousands of people in the East and in the West.[107]
He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. His interment there is meant to be temporary, until his own mausoleum can be built in the vicinity of Riḍván Garden, known as the Shrine of left a Will and Testament that was originally written between 1901 and 1908 and addressed to Shoghi Effendi, who at that time was only 4–11 years old. The will appoints Shoghi Effendi as the first in a line of Guardians of the religion, a hereditary executive role that may provide authoritative interpretations of scripture. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá directed all Baháʼís to turn to him and obey him, and assured him of divine protection and guidance. The will also provided a formal reiteration of his teachings, such as the instructions to teach, manifest spiritual qualities, associate with all people, and shun Covenant-breakers. Many obligations of the Universal House of Justice and the Hands of the Cause were also elaborated.[109][2] Shoghi Effendi later described the document as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith.
The authenticity and provisions of the will were almost universally accepted by Baháʼís around the world, with the exception of Ruth White and a few other Americans who tried to protest Shoghi Effendi's leadership.
In volumes of The Baháʼí World published in 1930 and 1933, Shoghi Effendi named nineteen Baháʼís as disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and heralds of the Covenant, including Thornton Chase, Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney [fr], John Esslemont, Lua Getsinger, and Robert Turner.[110][111][112] No other statements about them have been found in Shoghi Effendi's writings.[113]
During his lifetime there was some ambiguity among Baháʼís as to his station relative to Baháʼu'lláh, and later to Shoghi Effendi. Some American newspapers reported him to be a Baháʼí prophet or the return of Christ. Shoghi Effendi later formalized his legacy as the last of three "Central Figures" of the Baháʼí Faith and the "Perfect exemplar" of the teachings, also claiming that holding him on an equal status to Baháʼu'lláh or Jesus was heretical. Shoghi Effendi also wrote that during the anticipated Baháʼí dispensation of 1000 years there will be no equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.[114]
Appearance and personality
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1868ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was described as handsome,[12] and bore striking resemblance to his mother. As an adult he reached medium height but he gave the impression of being taller.[115] He had dark hair that flowed to his shoulders, grey coloured eyes, a fair complexion and an aquiline nose.[116] In 1890, Orientalist Edward Granville Browne met him and wrote:
Seldom have I seen one whose appearance impressed me more. A tall strongly built man holding himself straight as an arrow, with white turban and raiment, long black locks reaching almost to the shoulder, broad powerful forehead indicating a strong intellect combined with an unswerving will, eyes keen as a hawk's, and strongly marked but pleasing features – such was my first impression of 'Abbás Efendí, "the master".[117]
After the death of Bahá’u’lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá began to visibly age. By the late 1890s his hair had turned snow-white and deep lines set on his face.[118] As a young man he was athletic and enjoyed archery, horseback riding and swimming.[119] Even later in his life ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained active going for long walks in Haifa and Acre.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a major presence for the Bahá’ís during his lifetime, and he continues to influence the Bahá’í community today.[120] Bahá’ís regard ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the perfect example of the teachings of his father and therefore strive to emulate him. Anecdotes about him are frequently used to illustrate particular points about morality and interpersonal relations. He was remembered for his charisma, compassion,[121] philanthropy and strength in the face of suffering. John Esslemont reflected that "[‘Abdu’l-Bahá] showed that it is still possible, amid the whirl and rush of modern life, amid the self-love and struggle for material prosperity that everywhere prevail, to live the life of entire devotion to God and to the service of one's fellows."[5]
Even ardent enemies of the Bahá’í Faith were on occasion taken by meeting him. Mírzá 'Abdu'l-Muḥammad Írání Mu'addibu's-Sulṭán, an Iranian, and Shaykh 'Alí Yúsuf, an Arab, were both newspaper editors in Egypt who had published harsh attacks on the Bahá’í Faith in their papers. They called on ‘Abdu’l-Bahá when he was in Egypt and their attitude changed. Similarly, a Christian clergyman, Rev. J.T. Bixby, who was the author of a hostile article on the Bahá’í Faith in the United States, felt compelled to witness Abdu'l-Bahá's personal qualities. The effect of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá on those who were already committed Bahá’ís was greater still.[122]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was widely known for his encounters with the poor and dying.[122] His generosity resulted in his own family complaining that they were left with nothing. He was sensitive to people’s feelings,[115][122] and later expressed his wish to be a beloved figure of the Bahá’ís saying “I am your father...and you must be glad and rejoice, for I love you exceedingly.” According to historical accounts, he had a keen sense of humour and was relaxed and informal.[121] He was open about personal tragedies such as the loss of his children and the sufferings he'd endured as a prisoner,[115] further enhancing his popularity.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the affairs of the Bahá’í community with care. He was inclined to allow a large range of personal interpretations of the Bahá’í teachings as long as these did not obviously contradict fundamental principles. He did, however, expel members of the religion he felt were challenging his leadership and deliberately causing disunity in the community. Outbreaks of persecution of the Bahá’ís affected him deeply. He wrote personally to the families of those who had been martyred.
WorksThe total estimated number of tablets that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000 of which only a fraction have been translated into English.[123] His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others.[2] The first group includes The Secret of Divine Civilization written before 1875, A Traveller's Narrative written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or Sermon on the Art of Governance written in 1893, the Memorials of the Faithful, and a large number of tablets written to various people;[2] including various Western intellectuals such as Auguste Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The Secret of Divine Civilization and the Sermon on the Art of Governance were widely circulated anonymously.
The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, ʻAbdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace which are respectively addresses given by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.[2]
The following is a list of some of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks:
Foundations of World UnityLight of the World: Selected Tablets of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.Memorials of the FaithfulParis TalksSecret of Divine CivilizationSome Answered QuestionsTablets of the Divine PlanTablet to Auguste-Henri ForelTablet to The HagueWill and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-BaháPromulgation of Universal PeaceSelections from the Writings of ʻAbdu'l-BaháDivine PhilosophyTreatise on Politics / Sermon on the Art of Governance[124]See alsoBaháʼu'lláh's familyMírzá MihdíÁsíyih KhánumBahíyyih KhánumMunirih KhánumShoghi EffendiHouse of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
The Baháʼí Faith is a religion[a] founded in the 19th century that teaches the essential worth of all religions and the unity of all people.[b] Established by Baháʼu'lláh, it initially developed in Iran and parts of the Middle East, where it has faced ongoing persecution since its inception.[14] The religion is estimated to have 5 to 8 million adherents, known as Baháʼís, spread throughout most of the world's countries and territories.
The Baháʼí Faith has three central figures: the Báb (1819–1850), executed for heresy, who taught that a prophet similar to Jesus and Muhammad would soon appear; Baháʼu'lláh (1817–1892), who claimed to be that prophet in 1863 and had to endure both exile and imprisonment; and his son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (1844–1921), who made teaching trips to Europe and the United States after his release from confinement in 1908. After ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death in 1921, the leadership of the religion fell to his grandson Shoghi Effendi (1897–1957). Baháʼís annually elect local, regional, and national Spiritual Assemblies that govern the religion's affairs, and every five years an election is held for the Universal House of Justice, the nine-member governing institution of the worldwide Baháʼí community that is located in Haifa, Israel, near the Shrine of the Báb.
According to Baháʼí teachings, religion is revealed in an orderly and progressive way by a single God through Manifestations of God, who are the founders of major world religions throughout human history; Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad are cited as the most recent of these Manifestations of God before the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh. Baháʼís regard the world's major religions as fundamentally unified in their purpose, but divergent in their social practices and interpretations. The Baháʼí Faith stresses the unity of all people as its core teaching and as a result, it explicitly rejects notions of racism, sexism, and nationalism. At the heart of Baháʼí teachings is the desire to establish a unified world order that ensures the prosperity of all nations, races, creeds, and classes.[15][16]
Letters and epistles by Baháʼu'lláh, along with writings and talks by his son ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, have been collected and assembled into a canon of Baháʼí scriptures. This collection includes works by the Báb, who is regarded as Baháʼu'lláh's forerunner. Prominent among the works of Baháʼí literature are the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the Kitáb-i-Íqán, Some Answered Questions, and The Dawn-Breakers.
EtymologyMain article: Baháʼí orthographyThe word "Baháʼí" (بهائی) is used either as an adjective to refer to the Baháʼí Faith or as a term for a follower of Baháʼu'lláh. The proper name of the religion is the "Baháʼí Faith", not Baháʼí or Baha'ism (the latter, once common among academics, is regarded as derogatory by the Baháʼís).[17][18] It is derived from the Arabic "Baháʼ" (بهاء), a name Baháʼu'lláh chose for himself, referring to the 'glory' or 'splendor' of God. In English, the word is commonly pronounced bə-HYE (/bəˈhaɪ/), but the more accurate rendering of the Arabic is bə-HAH-ee (/bəˈhɑː.iː/).[19]
The accent marks above the letters, representing long vowels, derive from a system of transliterating Arabic and Persian script that was adopted by Baháʼís in 1923, and which has been used in almost all Baháʼí publications since.[17] Baháʼís prefer the orthographies Baháʼí, the Báb, Baháʼu'lláh, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. When accent marks are unavailable, Bahai, Bahaʼi, or Bahaullah are often used.
HistoryMain article: History of the Baháʼí FaithA domed buildingShrine of the Báb in Haifa, IsraelBaháʼí timeline1817 Baháʼu'lláh was born in Tehran, Iran1819 The Báb was born in Shiraz, Iran1844 The Báb declares his mission in Shiraz, Iran1850 The Báb is publicly executed in Tabriz, Iran1852 Thousands of Bábís are executedBaháʼu'lláh is imprisoned and forced into exile1863 Baháʼu'lláh first announces his claim to divine revelation in Baghdad, Iraq.He is forced to leave Baghdad for Istanbul, then Adrianople1868 Baháʼu'lláh is forced into harsher confinement in ʻAkká, in Palestine1892 Baháʼu'lláh dies near ʻAkkáHis Will appointed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as successor1908 ʻAbdu'l-Bahá is released from prison1921 ʻAbdu'l-Bahá dies in HaifaHis Will appointed Shoghi Effendi as Guardian1957 Shoghi Effendi dies in England1963 The Universal House of Justice is first electedThe Baháʼí Faith traces its beginnings to the religion of the Báb and the Shaykhi movement that immediately preceded it. The Báb was a merchant who began preaching in 1844 that he was the bearer of a new revelation from God, but was rejected by the generality of Islamic clergy in Iran, ending in his public execution for the crime of heresy.[20] The Báb taught that God would soon send a new messenger, and Baháʼís consider Baháʼu'lláh to be that person.[21] Although they are distinct movements, the Báb is so interwoven into Baháʼí theology and history that Baháʼís celebrate his birth, death, and declaration as holy days, consider him one of their three central figures (along with Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá), and a historical account of the Bábí movement (The Dawn-Breakers) is considered one of three books that every Baháʼí should "master" and read "over and over again".[22]
The Baháʼí community was mostly confined to the Iranian and Ottoman empires until after the death of Baháʼu'lláh in 1892, at which time he had followers in 13 countries of Asia and Africa.[23] Under the leadership of his son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the religion gained a footing in Europe and America, and was consolidated in Iran, where it still suffers intense persecution.[14] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death in 1921 marks the end of what Baháʼís call the "heroic age" of the religion.[24]
BábMain article: BábOn the evening of 22 May 1844, Siyyid ʻAlí-Muhammad of Shiraz gained his first convert and took on the title of "the Báb" (الباب "Gate"), referring to his later claim to the status of Mahdi of Shiʻa Islam.[14] His followers were therefore known as Bábís. As the Báb's teachings spread, which the Islamic clergy saw as blasphemous, his followers came under increased persecution and torture.[25] The conflicts escalated in several places to military sieges by the Shah's army. The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed in 1850.[26]
Baháʼís see the Báb as the forerunner of the Baháʼí Faith, because the Báb's writings introduced the concept of "He whom God shall make manifest", a messianic figure whose coming, according to Baháʼís, was announced in the scriptures of all of the world's great religions, and whom Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, claimed to be.[25] The Báb's tomb, located in Haifa, Israel, is an important place of pilgrimage for Baháʼís. The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Iran to the Holy Land and eventually interred in the tomb built for them in a spot specifically designated by Baháʼu'lláh.[27] The writings of the Báb are considered inspired scripture by Baháʼís, though having been superseded by the laws and teachings of Baháʼu'lláh.[28] The main written works translated into English of the Báb are compiled in Selections from the Writings of the Báb (1976) out of the estimated 135 works.[29][30]
Baháʼu'lláhMain article: Baháʼu'lláh
Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí FaithMírzá Husayn ʻAlí Núrí was one of the early followers of the Báb,[31] and later took the title of Baháʼu'lláh.[32] In August 1852, a few Bábís made a failed attempt to assassinate the Shah, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar.[33][34] The Shah responded by ordering the killing and in some cases torturing of about 50 Bábís in Tehran.[34] Further bloodshed spread throughout the country and hundreds were reported in period newspapers by October, and tens of thousands by the end of December.[35] Baháʼu'lláh was not involved in the assassination attempt but was imprisoned in Tehran until his release was arranged four months later by the Russian ambassador, after which he joined other Bábís in exile in Baghdad.[36]
Shortly thereafter he was expelled from Iran and traveled to Baghdad, in the Ottoman Empire.[37] In Baghdad, his leadership revived the persecuted followers of the Báb in Iran, so Iranian authorities requested his removal, which instigated a summons to Constantinople (now Istanbul) from the Ottoman Sultan. In 1863, at the time of his removal from Baghdad, Baháʼu'lláh first announced his claim of prophethood to his family and followers, which he said came to him years earlier while in a dungeon of Tehran.[37] From the time of the initial exile from Iran, tensions grew between him and Subh-i-Azal, the appointed leader of the Bábís, who did not recognize Baháʼu'lláh's claim. Throughout the rest of his life Baháʼu'lláh gained the allegiance of almost all of the Bábís, who came to be known as Baháʼís, while a remnant of Bábís became known as Azalis.[38]
He spent less than four months in Constantinople. After receiving chastising letters from Baháʼu'lláh, Ottoman authorities turned against him and put him under house arrest in Adrianople (now Edirne), where he remained for four years, until a royal decree of 1868 banished all Bábís to either Cyprus or ʻAkká.
It was in or near the Ottoman penal colony of ʻAkká, in present-day Israel, that Baháʼu'lláh spent the remainder of his life. After initially strict and harsh confinement, he was allowed to live in a home near ʻAkká, while still officially a prisoner of that city.[39] He died there in 1892. Baháʼís regard his resting place at Bahjí as the Qiblih to which they turn in prayer each day.[40]
He produced over 18,000 works in his lifetime, in both Arabic and Persian, of which only 8% have been translated into English.[41] During the period in Adrianople, he began declaring his mission as a Messenger of God in letters to the world's religious and secular rulers, including Pope Pius IX, Napoleon III, and Queen Victoria.[42]
ʻAbdu'l-BaháMain article: ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláhʻAbbás Effendi was Baháʼu'lláh's eldest son, known by the title of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("Servant of Bahá"). His father left a will that appointed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as the leader of the Baháʼí community.[43] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment, which continued until ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, teaching, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Baháʼí Faith.[37]
As of 2020, there are over 38,000 extant documents containing the words of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, which are of widely varying lengths.[44] Only a fraction of these documents have been translated into English.[needs update][30] Among the more well known are The Secret of Divine Civilization, Some Answered Questions, the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel, the Tablets of the Divine Plan, and the Tablet to The Hague.[44] Additionally notes taken of a number of his talks were published in various volumes like Paris Talks during his journeys to the West.
Shoghi EffendiMain article: Shoghi EffendiBaháʼu'lláh's Kitáb-i-Aqdas and The Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá are foundational documents of the Baháʼí administrative order. Baháʼu'lláh established the elected Universal House of Justice, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions.[45] In his Will, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá appointed Shoghi Effendi, his eldest grandson, as the first Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith. Shoghi Effendi served for 36 years as the head of the religion until his death.[46]
Throughout his lifetime, Shoghi Effendi translated Baháʼí texts; developed global plans for the expansion of the Baháʼí community; developed the Baháʼí World Centre; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the religion, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice.[37] He unexpectedly died after a brief illness on 4 November 1957, in London, England, under conditions that did not allow for a successor to be appointed.[47][48]
In 1937, Shoghi Effendi launched a seven-year plan for the Baháʼís of North America, followed by another in 1946. In 1953, he launched the first international plan, the Ten Year World Crusade. This plan included extremely ambitious goals for the expansion of Baháʼí communities and institutions, the translation of Baháʼí texts into several new languages, and the sending of Baháʼí pioneers into previously unreached nations.[49] He announced in letters during the Ten Year Crusade that it would be followed by other plans under the direction of the Universal House of Justice, which was elected in 1963 at the culmination of the Crusade.[citation needed]
Universal House of JusticeMain article: Universal House of JusticeSince 1963, the Universal House of Justice has been the elected head of the Baháʼí Faith. The general functions of this body are defined through the writings of Baháʼu'lláh and clarified in the writings of Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi. These functions include teaching and education, implementing Baháʼí laws, addressing social issues, and caring for the weak and the poor.[50]
Starting with the Nine Year Plan that began in 1964, the Universal House of Justice has directed the work of the Baháʼí community through a series of multi-year international plans.[51][52] Starting with the Nine-Year Plan that began in 1964, the Baháʼí leadership sought to continue the expansion of the religion but also to "consolidate" new members, meaning increase their knowledge of the Baháʼí teachings.[53] In this vein, in the 1970s, the Ruhi Institute was founded by Baháʼís in Colombia to offer short courses on Baháʼí beliefs, ranging in length from a weekend to nine days.[53] The associated Ruhi Foundation, whose purpose was to systematically "consolidate" new Baháʼís, was registered in 1992, and since the late 1990s the courses of the Ruhi Institute have been the dominant way of teaching the Baháʼí Faith around the world.[53] By 2013 there were over 300 Baháʼí training institutes around the world and 100,000 people participating in courses.[54] The courses of the Ruhi Institute train communities to self-organize classes for the spiritual education of children and youth, among other activities.[54] Additional lines of action the Universal House of Justice has encouraged for the contemporary Baháʼí community include social action and participation in the prevalent discourses of society.[55]
Annually, on 21 April, the Universal House of Justice sends a 'Ridván' message to the worldwide Baháʼí community,[56] that updates Baháʼís on current developments and provides further guidance for the year to come.[c]
At local, regional, and national levels, Baháʼís elect members to nine-person Spiritual Assemblies, which run the affairs of the religion. There are also appointed individuals working at various levels, including locally and internationally, which perform the function of propagating the teachings and protecting the community. The latter do not serve as clergy, which the Baháʼí Faith does not have.[25][57] The Universal House of Justice remains the supreme governing body of the Baháʼí Faith, and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all National Spiritual Assemblies.[58] Any male Baháʼí, 18 years or older, is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice; all other positions are open to male and female Baháʼís.[59]
Malietoa Tanumafili II of Samoa, who became Baháʼí in 1968 and died in 2007, was the first serving head of state to embrace the Baháʼí Faith.[60]
BeliefsMain article: Baháʼí teachingsA white domed buildingBaháʼí House of Worship in Ingleside, Sydney, AustraliaThe teachings of Baháʼu'lláh form the foundation of Baháʼí beliefs. Three principles are central to these teachings: the unity of God, the unity of religion, and the unity of humanity.[37] Bahá'ís believe that God periodically reveals his will through divine messengers, whose purpose is to transform the character of humankind and to develop, within those who respond, moral and spiritual qualities. Religion is thus seen as orderly, unified, and progressive from age to age.[61]
GodMain article: God in the Baháʼí Faith
The Greatest Name is a Baháʼí symbol for God. It is the calligraphic rendering of the Arabic text: يا بهاء الأبهى, translated as "O Thou Glory of Glories".Baháʼí writings describe a single, personal, inaccessible, omniscient, omnipresent, imperishable, and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe.[62] The existence of God and the universe are thought to be eternal, with no beginning or end.[25] Even though God is not directly accessible, he is seen as being conscious of creation, with a will and a purpose which is expressed through messengers who are called Manifestations of God.[63] The Baháʼí conception of God is of an "unknowable essence" who is the source of all existence and known through the perception of human virtues.[citation needed] In another sense, Baháʼí teachings on God are also panentheistic, seeing signs of God in all things, but the reality of God being exalted and above the physical world.[64]
Baháʼí teachings state that God is too great for humans to fully comprehend, and based on them, humans cannot create a complete and accurate image of God by themselves. Therefore, human understanding of God is achieved through the recognition of the person of the Manifestation and through the understanding of his revelations via his Manifestations.[65][66][better source needed] In the Baháʼí Faith, God is often referred to by titles and attributes (for example, the All-Powerful, or the All-Loving), and there is a substantial emphasis on monotheism. Baháʼí teachings state that these attributes do not apply to God directly but are used to translate Godliness into human terms and to help people concentrate on their own attributes in worshipping God to develop their potential on their spiritual path.[65][66][better source needed] According to the Baháʼí teachings the human purpose is to learn to know and love God through such methods as prayer, reflection, and being of service to others.[65][better source needed]
ReligionMain article: Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religionSee also: Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)A white column with ornate designs carved into it, including a Star of DavidSymbols of many religions on a pillar of the Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois, U.S.Baháʼí notions of progressive religious revelation result in their accepting the validity of the well known religions of the world, whose founders and central figures are seen as Manifestations of God.[67] Religious history is interpreted as a series of dispensations, where each manifestation brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation that is rendered as a text of scripture and passed on through history with greater or lesser reliability but at least true in substance,[68] suited for the time and place in which it was expressed.[25] Specific religious social teachings (for example, the direction of prayer, or dietary restrictions) may be revoked by a subsequent manifestation so that a more appropriate requirement for the time and place may be established. Conversely, certain general principles (for example, neighbourliness, or charity) are seen to be universal and consistent. In Baháʼí belief, this process of progressive revelation will not end; it is, however, believed to be cyclical. Baháʼís do not expect a new manifestation of God to appear within 1000 years of Baháʼu'lláh's revelation.[69]
Baháʼís assert that their religion is a distinct tradition with its own scriptures and laws, and not a sect of another religion.[70] Most religious specialists now see it as an independent religion, with its religious background in Shiʻa Islam being seen as analogous to the Jewish context in which Christianity was established.[71] Baháʼís describe their faith as an independent world religion, differing from the other traditions in its relative age and modern context.[72][better source needed]
Human beingsSee also: Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity and Baháʼí Faith on life after deathA stylized Arabic figure which has intersecting lines that lock around rings and five-pointed stars to either sideThe ringstone symbol, representing humanity's connection to GodThe Baháʼí writings state that human beings have a "rational soul", and that this provides the species with a unique capacity to recognize God's status and humanity's relationship with its creator. Every human is seen to have a duty to recognize God through his Messengers, and to conform to their teachings.[73] Through recognition and obedience, service to humanity and regular prayer and spiritual practice, the Baháʼí writings state that the soul becomes closer to God, the spiritual ideal in Baháʼí belief. According to Baháʼí belief when a human dies the soul is permanently separated from the body and carries on in the next world where it is judged based on the person's actions in the physical world. Heaven and Hell are taught to be spiritual states of nearness or distance from God that describe relationships in this world and the next, and not physical places of reward and punishment achieved after death.[74]
The Baháʼí writings emphasize the essential equality of human beings, and the abolition of prejudice. Humanity is seen as essentially one, though highly varied; its diversity of race and culture are seen as worthy of appreciation and acceptance. Doctrines of racism, nationalism, caste, social class, and gender-based hierarchy are seen as artificial impediments to unity.[37] The Baháʼí teachings state that the unification of humanity is the paramount issue in the religious and political conditions of the present world.[25]
Social principles
The Baháʼí gardens in Haifa, IsraelWhen ʻAbdu'l-Bahá first traveled to Europe and America in 1911–1912, he gave public talks that articulated the basic principles of the Baháʼí Faith.[75] These included preaching on the equality of men and women, race unity, the need for world peace, and other progressive ideas for the early 20th century. Published summaries of the Baháʼí teachings often include a list of these principles, and lists vary in wording and what is included.[76]
The concept of the unity of humankind, seen by Baháʼís as an ancient truth, is the starting point for many of the ideas. The equality of races and the elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty, for example, are implications of that unity.[77] Another outgrowth of the concept is the need for a united world federation, and some practical recommendations to encourage its realization involve the establishment of a universal language, a standard economy and system of measurement, universal compulsory education, and an international court of arbitration to settle disputes between nations.[78] Nationalism, according to this viewpoint, should be abandoned in favor of allegiance to the whole of humankind. With regard to the pursuit of world peace, Baháʼu'lláh prescribed a world-embracing collective security arrangement.[79]
Other Baháʼí social principles revolve around spiritual unity. Religion is viewed as progressive from age to age, but to recognize a newer revelation one has to abandon tradition and independently investigate. Baháʼís are taught to view religion as a source of unity, and religious prejudice as destructive. Science is also viewed in harmony with true religion.[76] Though Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá called for a united world that is free of war, they also anticipate that over the long term, the establishment of a lasting peace (The Most Great Peace) and the purging of the "overwhelming Corruptions" requires that the people of the world unite under a universal faith with spiritual virtues and ethics to complement material civilization.[79]
Shoghi Effendi, the head of the religion from 1921 to 1957, wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Baháʼu'lláh's teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas constitute the bedrock of the Baháʼí Faith:
The independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition; the oneness of the entire human race, the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between religion and science; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a universal auxiliary language; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of worship; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; and the establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind—these stand out as the essential elements [which Baháʼu'lláh proclaimed].[80][81]
CovenantMain article: Covenant of Baháʼu'lláhBaháʼís highly value unity, and Baháʼu'lláh clearly established rules for holding the community together and resolving disagreements. Within this framework no individual follower may propose 'inspired' or 'authoritative' interpretations of scripture, and individuals agree to support the line of authority established in Baháʼí scriptures.[82] This practice has left the Baháʼí community unified and avoided any serious fracturing.[83] The Universal House of Justice is the final authority to resolve any disagreements among Baháʼís, and the few attempts at schism[84] have all either become extinct or remained extremely small, numbering a few hundred adherents collectively.[85][86] The followers of such divisions are regarded as Covenant-breakers and shunned. [87]
Sacred textsTexts and scripturesof the Baháʼí Faith
From Baháʼu'lláhDays of RemembranceEpistle to the Son of the WolfThe Four ValleysGems of Divine Hidden WordsThe Seven ValleysSummons of the Lord of HostsTabernacle of UnityTablets of Baháʼu'lláhList of writings of Baháʼu'lláhFrom the BábPersian BayánArabic BayánWritings of the BábFrom ʻAbdu'l-BaháParis TalksThe Secret of Divine CivilizationSome Answered QuestionsTablets of the Divine PlanTablet to Dr. ForelTablet to The HagueWill and TestamentFrom Shoghi EffendiGod Passes ByAdvent of Divine JusticePromised Day is ComevteMain article: Baháʼí literatureThe canonical texts of the Baháʼí Faith are the writings of the Báb, Baháʼu'lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice, and the authenticated talks of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The writings of the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh are considered as divine revelation, the writings and talks of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and the writings of Shoghi Effendi as authoritative interpretation, and those of the Universal House of Justice as authoritative legislation and elucidation. Some measure of divine guidance is assumed for all of these texts.[88]
Some of Baháʼu'lláh's most important writings include the Kitáb-i-Aqdas ("Most Holy Book"), which defines many laws and practices for individuals and society,[89] the Kitáb-i-Íqán ("Book of Certitude"), which became the foundation of much of Baháʼí belief,[90] and Gems of Divine Mysteries, which includes further doctrinal foundations. Although the Baháʼí teachings have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, a number of foundational texts have been described as mystical.[25] These include the Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys.[91] The Seven Valleys was written to a follower of Sufism, in the style of ʻAttar, the Persian Muslim poet,[92] and sets forth the stages of the soul's journey towards God. It was first translated into English in 1906, becoming one of the earliest available books of Baháʼu'lláh to the West. The Hidden Words is another book written by Baháʼu'lláh during the same period, containing 153 short passages in which Baháʼu'lláh claims to have taken the basic essence of certain spiritual truths and written them in brief form.[93]
DemographicsFurther information: Baháʼí Faith by countryA large temple in the shape of an open lotus flowerThe Lotus Temple, the first Baháʼí House of Worship of India, built in 1986. It attracts an estimated 4.5 million visitors a year.As of around 2020, there were about 8 million Bahá'ís in the world.[94][95] In 2013, two scholars of demography wrote that, "The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Bahaʼi [sic] was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region."[96] (See Growth of religion.)The Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois, is the oldest surviving Baháʼí House of Worship in the world.[97]The largest proportions of the total worldwide Bahá'í population[98] were found in sub-Saharan Africa (29.9%) and South Asia (26.8%), followed by Southeast Asia (12.7%) and Latin America (12.2%). Lesser populations are found in North America (7.6%) and the Middle East/North Africa (6.2%), while the smallest populations in Europe (2.0%), Australasia (1.6%), and Northeast Asia (0.9%). In 2015, the internationally recognized religion was the second-largest international religion in Iran,[99] Panama,[100] Belize,[101] Bolivia,[102] Zambia,[103] and Papua New Guinea;[104] and the third-largest in Chad,[105] and Kenya.[106]
From the Bahá'í Faith's origins in the 19th century until the 1950s, the vast majority of Baháʼís were found in Iran; converts from outside Iran were mostly found in India and the Western world.[107] From having roughly 200,000 Baháʼís in 1950,[108] the religion grew to have over 4 million by the late 1980s, with a wide international distribution.[107][109] As of 2008, there were about 110,000 followers in Iran.[110] Most of the growth in the late 20th century was seeded out of North America by means of the planned migration of individuals.[111] Yet, rather than being a cultural spread from either Iran or North America, in 2001, sociologist David B. Barrett wrote that the Baháʼí Faith is, "A world religion with no racial or national focus".[112] However, the growth has not been even. From the late 1920s to the late 1980s, the religion was banned and adherents of it were harassed in the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc,[113][114][115] and then again from the 1970s into the 1990s across some countries in sub-Saharan Africa.[51][116] The most intense opposition has been in Iran and neighboring Shia-majority countries,[117] considered an attempted genocide by some scholars, watchdog agencies and human rights organizations.[14][118][119][120] Meanwhile, in other times and places, the religion has experienced surges in growth. Before it was banned in certain countries, the religion "hugely increased" in sub-Saharan Africa.[121] In 1989 the Universal House of Justice named Bolivia, Bangladesh, Haiti, India, Liberia, Peru, the Philippines, and Taiwan as countries where the growth of the religion had been notable in the previous decades.[122] Bahá'í sources claimed "more than five million" Bahá'ís in 1991–92.[123] However, since around 2001 the Universal House of Justice has prioritized statistics of the community by their levels of activity rather than simply their population of avowed adherents or numbers of local assemblies.[124][125][126]
Because Bahá'ís do not represent the majority of the population in any country,[127] and most often represent only a tiny fraction of countries' total populations,[128] there are problems of under-reporting.[129] In addition, there are examples where the adherents have their highest density among minorities in societies who face their own challenges.[130][131]
Social practicesSee also: Baháʼí lawsExhortationsThe following are a few examples from Baháʼu'lláh's teachings on personal conduct that are required or encouraged of his followers:
Baháʼís over the age of 15 should individually recite an obligatory prayer each day, using fixed words and form.[132]In addition to the daily obligatory prayer, Baháʼís should offer daily devotional prayer and should meditate and study sacred scripture.[133]Adult Baháʼís should observe a Nineteen-Day Fast each year during daylight hours in March, with certain exemptions.[134]There are specific requirements for Baháʼí burial that include a specified prayer to be read at the interment. Embalming or cremating the body is strongly discouraged.[135]Baháʼís should make a 19% voluntary payment on any wealth in excess of what is necessary to live comfortably, after the remittance of any outstanding debt. The payments go to the Universal House of Justice.[134]ProhibitionsElaborate gardens with several gates and a walkway leading to a domed building in the distanceThe Baháʼí gardens in Haifa, IsraelThe following are a few acts of personal conduct that are prohibited or discouraged by Baháʼu'lláh's teachings:
Backbiting and gossipping are prohibited and denounced.[136]Drinking and selling alcohol are forofferden.[137]Sexual intercourse is only permitted between a husband and a wife, and as a result, premarital, extramarital, and homosexual intercourse are all forofferden.[138] (See also Homosexuality and the Baháʼí Faith)Participation in partisan politics is forofferden.[139]Begging is forofferden as a profession.[140]The observance of personal laws, such as prayer or fasting, is the sole responsibility of the individual.[141] There are, however, occasions when a Baháʼí might be administratively expelled from the community for a public disregard of the laws, or gross immorality. Such expulsions are administered by the National Spiritual Assembly and do not involve shunning.[142]
While some of the laws in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are applicable at the present time, other laws are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Baháʼí society, such as the punishments for arson and murder.[143] The laws, when not in direct conflict with the civil laws of the country of residence, are binding on every Baháʼí.[144][145]
MarriageMain article: Baháʼí marriageThe purpose of marriage in the Baháʼí Faith is mainly to foster spiritual harmony, fellowship and unity between a man and a woman and to provide a stable and loving Environment for the rearing of children.[146] The Baháʼí teachings on marriage call it a fortress for well-being and salvation and place marriage and the family as the foundation of the structure of human society.[147] Baháʼu'lláh highly praised marriage, discouraged divorce, and required chastity outside of marriage; Baháʼu'lláh taught that a husband and wife should strive to improve the spiritual life of each other.[148] Interracial marriage is also highly praised throughout Baháʼí scripture.[147]
Baháʼís intending to marry are asked to obtain a thorough understanding of the other's character before deciding to marry.[147] Although parents should not choose partners for their children, once two individuals decide to marry, they must receive the consent of all living biological parents, whether they are Baháʼí or not. The Baháʼí marriage ceremony is simple; the only compulsory part of the wedding is the reading of the wedding vows prescribed by Baháʼu'lláh which both the groom and the bride read, in the presence of two witnesses.[147] The vows are "We will all, verily, aoffere by the Will of God."[147]
Transgender people can gain recognition of their gender in the Baháʼí Faith if they have medically transitioned and undergone sex reassignment surgery (SRS). After SRS, they are considered transitioned and may have a Baháʼí prohibited a mendicant and ascetic lifestyle.[140] Monasticism is forofferden, and Baháʼís are taught to practice spirituality while engaging in useful work.[25] The importance of self-exertion and service to humanity in one's spiritual life is emphasised further in Baháʼu'lláh's writings, where he states that work done in the spirit of service to humanity enjoys a rank equal to that of prayer and worship in the sight of God.[25]
Places of worshipMain article: Baháʼí House of WorshipA white domed building with palm trees in front of itBaháʼí House of Worship, Langenhain, GermanyBahá'í devotional meetings in most communities currently take place in people's homes or Bahá'í centres, but in some communities Bahá'í Houses of Worship (also known as Bahá'í temples) have been built.[151] Bahá'í Houses of Worship are places where both Baháʼís and non-Baháʼís can express devotion to God.[152] They are also known by the name Mashriqu'l-Adhkár (Arabic for "Dawning-place of the remembrance of God").[153] Only the holy scriptures of the Bahá'í Faith and other religions can be read or chanted inside, and while readings and prayers that have been set to music may be sung by choirs, no musical instruments may be played inside.[154] Furthermore, no sermons may be delivered, and no ritualistic ceremonies practiced.[154] All Bahá'í Houses of Worship have a nine-sided shape (nonagon) as well as nine pathways leading outward and nine gardens surrounding them.[155] There are currently eight "continental" Bahá'í Houses of Worship and some local Bahá'í Houses of Worship completed or under construction.[48] The Bahá'í writings also envision Bahá'í Houses of Worship being surrounded by institutions for humanitarian, scientific, and educational pursuits,[153] though none has yet been built up to such an extent.[156]
CalendarMain article: Baháʼí calendarThe Baháʼí calendar is based upon the calendar established by the Báb. The year consists of 19 months, each having 19 days, with four or five intercalary days, to make a full solar year.[37] The Baháʼí New Year corresponds to the traditional Iranian New Year, called Naw Rúz, and occurs on the vernal equinox, near 21 March, at the end of the month of fasting. Once every Baháʼí month there is a gathering of the Baháʼí community called a Nineteen Day Feast with three parts: first, a devotional part for prayer and reading from Baháʼí scripture; second, an administrative part for consultation and community matters; and third, a social part for the community to interact freely.[151]
Each of the 19 months is given a name which is an attribute of God; some examples include Baháʼ (Splendour), ʻIlm (Knowledge), and Jamál (Beauty).[157] The Baháʼí week is familiar in that it consists of seven days, with each day of the week also named after an attribute of God. Baháʼís observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these. These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the religion.[158]
SymbolsMain article: Baháʼí symbolsArabic script inscribed on a metal plateThe calligraphy of the Greatest Name on a metal plateThe symbols of the religion are derived from the Arabic word Baháʼ (بهاء "splendor" or "glory"), with a numerical value of nine. This numerical connection to the name of Baháʼu'lláh, as well as nine being the highest single-digit, symbolizing completeness, are why the most common symbol of the religion is a nine-pointed star, and Baháʼí temples are nine-sided.[159][67] The nine-pointed star is commonly set on Baháʼí gravestones.[160]
The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The ringstone symbol consists of two five-pointed stars interspersed with a stylized Baháʼ whose shape is meant to recall God, the Manifestation of God, and the world of man;[160] the Greatest Name is a calligraphic rendering of the phrase Yá Baháʼu'l-Abhá (يا بهاء الأبهى "O Glory of the Most Glorious!") and is commonly found in Baháʼí temples and homes.[160]
Socio-economic developmentMain article: Socioeconomic development and the Baháʼí FaithA black-and-white photograph of several dozen girls seated in front of a school buildingStudents of School for Girls, Tehran, 13 August 1933. This photograph may be of the students of Tarbiyat School for Girls which was established by the Baháʼí Community of Tehran in 1911; the school was closed by government decree in 1934.[161]Since its inception the Baháʼí Faith has had involvement in socio-economic development beginning by giving greater freedom to women,[162][better source needed] promulgating the promotion of female education as a priority concern,[163][better source needed] and that involvement was given practical expression by creating schools, agricultural co-ops, and clinics.[162][better source needed]
The religion entered a new phase of activity when a message from the Universal House of Justice dated 20 October 1983 was released. Baháʼís were urged to seek out ways, compatible with the Baháʼí teachings, in which they could become involved in the social and economic development of the communities in which they lived. Worldwide in 1979 there were 129 officially recognized Baháʼí socio-economic development projects. By 1987, the number of officially recognized development projects had increased to 1,482.[51]
Current initiatives of social action include activities in areas like health, sanitation, education, gender equality, arts and media, agriculture, and the Environment.[164][better source needed] Educational projects include schools, which range from village tutorial schools to large secondary schools, and some universities.[165] By 2017, the Baháʼí Office of Social and Economic Development estimated that there were 40,000 small-scale projects, 1,400 sustained projects, and 135 Baháʼí-inspired organizations.[164]
United NationsBaháʼu'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity's collective life. Because of this emphasis the international Baháʼí community has chosen to support efforts of improving international relations through organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations, with some reservations about the present structure and constitution of the UN.[165] The Baháʼí International Community is an agency under the direction of the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, and has consultative status with the following organizations:[166][167]
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)World Health Organization (WHO)The Baháʼí International Community has offices at the United Nations in New York and Geneva and representations to United Nations regional commissions and other offices in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and Vienna.[167] In recent years, an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women were established as part of its United Nations Office. The Baháʼí Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies. In the 2000 Millennium Forum of the United Nations a Baháʼí was invited as one of the only non-governmental speakers during the summit.[168][better source needed]
PersecutionMain article: Persecution of BaháʼísBroken cinder blocks and felled palm treesThe Baháʼí cemetery in Yazd after its desecration by the Iranian governmentBaháʼís continue to be persecuted in some majority-Islamic countries, whose leaders do not recognize the Baháʼí Faith as an independent religion, but rather as apostasy from Islam. The most severe persecutions have occurred in Iran, where more than 200 Baháʼís were executed between 1978 and 1998.[169] The rights of Baháʼís have been restricted to greater or lesser extents in numerous other countries, including Egypt, Afghanistan,[170][better source needed] Indonesia,[171] Iraq,[172] Morocco,[173] Yemen,[174] and several countries in sub-Saharan Africa.[51]
IranThe most enduring persecution of Baháʼís has been in Iran, the birthplace of the religion.[175] When the Báb started attracting a large following, the clergy hoped to stop the movement from spreading by stating that its followers were enemies of God. These clerical directives led to mob attacks and public executions.[14] Starting in the twentieth century, in addition to repression aimed at individual Baháʼís, centrally directed campaigns that targeted the entire Baháʼí community and its institutions were initiated.[176] In one case in Yazd in 1903 more than 100 Baháʼís were killed.[177] Baháʼí schools, such as the Tarbiyat boys' and girls' schools in Tehran, were closed in the 1930s and 1940s, Baháʼí marriages were not recognized and Baháʼí texts were censored.[176][178]
During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to divert attention from economic difficulties in Iran and from a growing nationalist movement, a campaign of persecution against the Baháʼís was instituted.[d] An approved and coordinated anti-Baháʼí campaign (to incite public passion against the Baháʼís) started in 1955 and it included the spreading of anti-Baháʼí propaganda on national radio stations and in official newspapers.[176] During that campaign, initiated by Mulla Muhammad Taghi Falsafi, the Bahá'í center in Tehran was demolished at the orders of Tehran military governor, General Teymur Bakhtiar.[180] In the late 1970s the Shah's regime consistently lost legitimacy due to criticism that it was pro-Western. As the anti-Shah movement gained ground and support, revolutionary propaganda was spread which alleged that some of the Shah's advisors were Baháʼís.[181] Baháʼís were portrayed as economic threats, and as supporters of Israel and the West, and societal hostility against the Baháʼís increased.[176][182]
Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Iranian Baháʼís have regularly had their homes ransacked or have been banned from attending university or from holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, most recently for participating in study circles.[169] Baháʼí cemeteries have been desecrated and property has been seized and occasionally demolished, including the House of Mírzá Buzurg, Baháʼu'lláh's father.[14] The House of the Báb in Shiraz, one of three sites to which Baháʼís perform pilgrimage, has been destroyed twice.[14][183] In May 2018, the Iranian authorities expelled a young woman student from university of Isfahan because she was Baháʼí.[184] In March 2018, two more Baháʼí students were expelled from universities in the cities of Zanjan and Gilan because of their religion.
According to a US panel, attacks on Baháʼís in Iran increased under Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's presidency.[185][186] The United Nations Commission on Human Rights revealed an October 2005 confidential letter from Command Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Iran ordering its members to identify Baháʼís and to monitor their activities. Due to these actions, the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights stated on 20 March 2006, that she "also expresses concern that the information gained as a result of such monitoring will be used as a basis for the increased persecution of, and discrimination against, members of the Baháʼí faith, in violation of international standards. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating."[187]
On 14 May 2008, members of an informal body known as the "Friends" that oversaw the needs of the Baháʼí community in Iran were arrested and taken to Evin prison.[185][188] The Friends court case has been postponed several times, but was finally underway on 12 January 2010.[189] Other observers were not allowed in the court. Even the defense lawyers, who for two years have had minimal access to the defendants, had difficulty entering the courtroom. The chairman of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom said that it seems that the government has already predetermined the outcome of the case and is violating international human rights law.[189] Further sessions were held on 7 February 2010,[190] 12 April 2010[191] and 12 June 2010.[192] On 11 August 2010 it became known that the court sentence was 20 years imprisonment for each of the seven prisoners[193] which was later reduced to ten years.[194] After the sentence, they were transferred to Gohardasht prison.[195] In March 2011 the sentences were reinstated to the original 20 years.[196] On 3 January 2010, Iranian authorities detained ten more members of the Baha'i minority, reportedly including Leva Khanjani, granddaughter of Jamaloddin Khanjani, one of seven Baha'i leaders jailed since 2008 and in February, they arrested his son, Niki Khanjani.[197]
The Iranian government claims that the Baháʼí Faith is not a religion, but is instead a political organization, and hence refuses to recognize it as a minority religion.[198] However, the government has never produced convincing evidence supporting its characterization of the Baháʼí community.[199] The Iranian government also accuses the Baháʼí Faith of being associated with Zionism.[e] These accusations against the Baháʼís appear to lack basis in historical fact,[f][182][201] with some arguing they were invented by the Iranian government in order to use the Baháʼís as scapegoats.[202]
In 2019, the Iranian government made it impossible for the Baháʼís to legally register with the Iranian state. National identity card applications in Iran no longer include the “other religions” option effectively making the Baháʼí Faith unrecognized by the state.[203]
EgyptDuring the 1920s, Egypt's religious Tribunal recognized the Baha'i Faith as a new religion, independent from Islam, due to the nature of the 'laws, principles and beliefs' of the Baha'is.[citation needed]
Baháʼí institutions and community activities have been illegal under Egyptian law since 1960. All Baháʼí community properties, including Baháʼí centers, libraries, and cemeteries, have been confiscated by the government and fatwas have been issued charging Baháʼís with apostasy.[204]
The Egyptian identification card controversy began in the 1990s when the government modernized the electronic processing of identity documents, which introduced a de facto requirement that documents must list the person's religion as Muslim, Christian, or Jewish (the only three religions officially recognized by the government). Consequently, Baháʼís were unable to obtain government identification documents (such as national identification cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, or passports) necessary to exercise their rights in their country unless they lied about their religion, which conflicts with Baháʼí religious principle. Without documents, they could not be employed, educated, treated in hospitals, travel outside of the country, or vote, among other hardships.[205][better source needed] Following a protracted legal process culminating in a court ruling favorable to the Baháʼís, the interior minister of Egypt released a decree on 14 April 2009, amending the law to allow Egyptians who are not Muslim, Christian, or Jewish to obtain identification documents that list a dash in place of one of the three recognized religions.[206][better source needed] The first identification cards were issued to two Baháʼís under the new decree on 8 August 2009.[207][better source needed]
See alsoBaháʼí administrationBaháʼí–Azali splitBaháʼí cosmologyBaháʼí Faith and gender equalityBaháʼí Faith in fictionBaháʼí studiesBaháʼí timelineProgressive revelation (Baháʼí)Baháʼí views on scienceBaháʼí World Centre buildingsCriticism of the Baháʼí FaithHuqúqu'lláhList of BaháʼísList of writings of Baháʼu'lláhOutline of the Baháʼí FaithTerraces (Baháʼí)World Religion DayNotesThe Baháʼí Faith is variously described as a 'religion', 'sect',[2] 'relatively new religion',[3] 'world religion',[4] 'major world religion',[5] 'megareligion',[6] 'independent world religion',[7] 'new religious movement',[8] 'alternative religion',[9] and other attempts to convey that it is new (relative to well-established faiths), not mainstream, and with no racial or national focus.Sources summarize the Baháʼí Faith as teaching, "the essential worth of all religions, the unity of all peoples, and the equality of the sexes",[10] "the essential unity of all religions and the unity of humanity",[11] "the spiritual unity of mankind and advocates peace and universal education",[12] "the unity of all peoples under God",[5] or "religious unity... the Oneness of Humanity... the equality of all human beings regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, or social class".[13]All Ridván messages can be found at Bahai.org.In line with this is the thinking that the government encouraged the campaign to distract attention from more serious problems, including acute economic difficulties. Beyond this lay the difficulty that the regime faced in harnessing the nationalist movement that had supported Musaddiq.[179]A spokesman for the Iranian Embassy in Argentina explained that the exclusion was prompted by the fact that the Bahá’ís were a "misguided group… whose affiliation and association with world Zionism is a clear fact" and who could not be "in the same category as minorities like the Christian, Jews and Zoroastrians."[200]The Iranian leader Naser al-Din Shah Qajar banished Baháʼu'lláh from Iran to the Ottoman Empire, from where he was later exiled by the Ottoman Sultan, at the behest of the Iranian Shah to territories further from Iran and finally to Acre, which only a century later was incorporated into the state of Israel.
CHAPTER 4
THE BAHA’ISCRIPTURES
T
he Baha’i scriptures include the writings of the faith’s threecentral figures: Baha’u’llah, his son ‘Abdu’l-Baha, and the Bab.
ThE wriTings of Baha’u’LLahFor Baha’i believers the writings of Baha’u’llah are the divine wordof God. Baha’u’llah’s books include Kalimat-i-Maknunih (whichmeans “The Hidden Words,” written around 1858); Kitab-i-Iqan,(“The Book of Certitude,” 1862); and Kitab-i-Aqdas (“Most HolyBook,” 1873). He also wrote many “tablets” or letters. He himselfestimated that a collection of his letters would make over 100 volumes. All of these works and others convey Baha’u’llah’s messageand lay down rules for leading the Baha’i life.One important source of scripture for the Baha’i Faith isGleanings from the Writings of Baha’u’llah. This is a collection ofBaha’ullah’s writings. It was compiled and translated into Englishby his great-grandson, Shoghi Effendi. From the more than 15,000tablets Baha’u’llah produced in his lifetime Shoghi Effendi chosepassages that he felt would show the spirit of Baha’i teachings.The International Baha’i Archives in Haifa, Israelwas built by Shoghi Effendi to house importantBaha’i relics and scriptures associated with thelives of the Bab, Baha’u’llah and ‘Abdu’l-Baha.54
BAHA’I FAITH
The Baha’i Scriptures
55
ThE TransLaTionsShoghi Effendi was Baha’u’llah’s principal translator. He spokefluent English as well as Persian and Arabic. After ‘Abdu’l-Baha’sdeath, Shoghi Effendi became Guardian of the Faith, as his grandfather’s will stated. As Guardian, he was the only person with theauthority to interpret Baha’u’llah’s message.It was Shoghi Effendi who set the style for the Baha’i scriptures. He chose a formal and older style of writing as he believedthis style more closely reflected the stately Persian and Arabic thatBaha’u’llah used. Shoghi Effendi also chose to use the word mankind to refer to all humanity and the masculine pronouns he andhim to refer to God. He may have done so because the masculineform was considered the proper formal usage in written Englishwhen he was writing. Baha’u’llah’s teachings specifically do notattach any gender to the creator. Baha’i readers understand andaccept that words like men and mankind refer to all humanity, notjust men.Shoghi Effendi’s translations into English are the highestauthority for interpreting Baha’u’llah’s writings. Translators usethem, not the original Persian or Arabic works, when they translate Baha’u’llah’s writings into other languages.
ThE TEaChings of message reaches thewhole world. His vision is of a globalreligion that embraces all peoples of theearth. All people, whatever their countryof origin, their race, or their ethnic background, are basically the same. Baha’u’llahrecognizes only one race—the humanrace. He asks his followers to act in thebest interests of all humankind. There areBaha’i communities on all continents andthe Baha’i scriptures have been translatedinto 802 languages.
56
BAHA’I FAITH
ThE hiDDEn worDsIn the Kalimat-i-Maknunih, or HiddenWords, Baha’u’llah restates the essential spiritual truths and ethical teachingsthat founders of all world religions havetaught. The Hidden Words is quite short.It has only 52 pages. There are two sections: Words from the Arabic, with 71numbered passages, and Words from thePersian, with 82 passages. Each passageis only a few lines long. As in the scriptures of other faiths, the passages take theform of the voice of God speaking to thereader.
In the Arabic Hidden Words, God advises his children. “Myfirst counsel is this: Possess a pure, kindly and radiant heart.” Hiswords urge believers to love him and only him. The words alsoremind human beings of the great love God has for them.The Persian Hidden Words carry a similar message. In this section Baha’u’llah often uses metaphors of nature. He compares theword of God to seeds of divine wisdom and asks believers to letthese words grow in their hearts. In this way beautiful flowers ofknowledge and wisdom will grow in the hearts of humankind.
ThE BooK of CErTiTuDEThe Kitab-i-Iqan, or Book of Certitude, presents one of the mostimportant themes of Baha’u’llah’s teachings. This is the theme ofthe progressive nature of religion. Many Baha’i scriptures enlargeon this teaching. The book also deals with great religious questions such as the nature of God, the nature of humanity, and thepurpose of life.
REvElATion of god’s WillAccording to the message of the Iqan there is one eternal God, thecreator. The essence of God is unknowable. However, throughout time God has revealed God’s will and purpose for humanitythrough a chosen individual or messenger. Each messenger hasfounded a great religion. For example, through Abraham the Jewscame to understand the oneness of God. Moses revealed God’slaw in the Ten Commandments. Jesus taught the love of Godand the love of humankind. Each messenger has perfectly reflected the energy andThe Messagepower of God that is God’s love.My first counsel is this: Possess a pure,A sHAREd PURPosEkindly and radiant heart, that thine maybe a sovereignty ancient, imperishable,According to Baha’u’llah every divine mesand everlasting.senger has come at a time that was rightfor a particular point in history. Although(In Baha’u’llah, The Hidden Words ofBaha’u’llah, Part I, 1.)they have appeared in different times andplaces, they had a shared purpose. EachThe Baha’i Scriptures
57
of these chosen leaders was right for his time and place and ledpeople to a new understanding of God’s will for humanity.Many people have believed that the messenger of God willreturn, yet each messenger of God has been rejected in his time.All have undergone hardship and suffering. Baha’u’llah points outthat many prophets of God have had to suffer because of whatthey preached. Jesus suffered and died on the cross. The prophetMuhammad of Islam cried, “No prophet of God hath sufferedsuch harm as I have suffered.” To the messengers such as Moses,Jesus, and Muhammad, Baha’u’llah adds the Bab, who died for histeachings. Such persecutions have led people of their own timeto doubt that the messengers were from God. Yet throughouthistory people believed that they were.How the Words of Baha’u’llahWere RecordedFrom a contemporary account:Mirza Aqa Jan [Baha’u’llah’s secretary]had a large ink-pot the size of a smallbowl. He also had available about ten totwelve pens and large sheets of paper instacks . . . He would bring [letters] intothe presence of Baha’u’llah and, havingobtained permission, would read them.Afterwards [Baha’u’llah] would directhim to take up his pen . . .Such was the speed with which he used towrite the revealed Word that the ink of thefirst word was scarcely yet dry when thewhole page was finished. It seemed as ifsomeone had dipped a lock of hair in theink and applied it over the whole page . .Then the letters were transcribedand approved by Baha’u’llah.
58
BAHA’I FAITH
TimE foR A nEW mEssEngERIn the Iqan Baha’u’llah writes that 1,280years have passed since the last messenger, the prophet Muhammad, offered histeachings. The time for a new messengerhas come. He sees in people a yearning forthe truth and the need for a new leader.The spiritual aspects of the human relationship to God do not change. However,the conditions of life change from age toage. As time moves on God sends newmessengers with lessons that are appropriate to each new age. In this way religionevolves, moving forward with time.
ThE MosT hoLy BooKThe Kitab-i-Aqdas is Baha’u’llah’s book ofholy law. He produced it during his prisonyears in Acre, probably the darkest andmost difficult time of his life. For Baha’isit is his most important work. The Aqdaslays out the rules for building a new world
In November 1992 more than 27,000 Baha’is from some 170 countries assembled in New YorkCity for the Second Baha’i World Congress. The Baha’i Faith that began in Iran in the middle ofthe 19th century has now spread to 236 countries and territories throughout the world.The Baha’i Scriptures
5
order in which all humanity will come together under the law ofGod. It names and describes the institutions that will make thenew world order possible. It is the guidebook for the future worldsociety that Baha’u’llah came to establish. The main part of theAqdas is only 190 paragraphs long, yet it covers many topics.
rELigious oBLigaTionsThe Aqdas commands humanity to recognize Baha’u’llah as themessenger of God for this time and to obey the laws that Godhas given. The laws are designed to further the cause of bringingtogether the whole world under the Baha’i Faith.From earlier religions Baha’u’llah retains practices such asfasting and prayer that serve a spiritual purpose. He providesspecific rules for prayer, including washing the hands and facebefore praying, the times when prayers are to be said, and whichprayers are obligatory. He foroffers congregational prayer, exceptfor the dead.
soCiaL LawsSocial laws cover marriage, divorce, and inheritance. The Aqdasestablishes the huququ’llah, the voluntary wealth tax that all Baha’ispay to the faith. Baha’u’llah calls this tax “the Right of God.” Itsupports the work of the faith.Like the Ten Commandments of the Jewish Torah, the Aqdasforoffers killing, stealing, lying, and adultery.In addition it prohibits arson, gambling,The Baha’i Calendaralcoholic beverages, drug abuse, and gossip; his followers are not permitted to talkBaha’u’llah establishes the Baha’iabout people behind their backs. Othercalendar and its holy days and makesprohibited activities are laziness, strikingfasting obligatory during the 19-dayor wounding anyone, and creating conmonth before the New Year. However,he creates exemptions from theflict. Baha’is are to repent of their sins, butfast for people who are ill, children,the mostly Christian practice of confesold people, pregnant and nursingsion to another is prohibited. Baha’u’llahwomen, and those doing heavy labor.says, “(L)et repentance be between yourselves and God.”60
BAHA’I FAITH
ruLEs for Living ThE Baha’i LifEThe Aqdas exhorts believers to welcome followers of all religionsin fellowship. They are to honor their parents, to study and toteach the faith, and not to wish for others what they would notwish for themselves. Parents are to educate their children in reading and writing and especially in the rules of the Baha’i Faith.Each individual is to have a trade or a craft. People are to usetheir skills in a way that will profit both themselves and others.They are not to be lazy or idle. Work is considered a form of worship. Baha’is are to care for their health and to be personally clean.They are to bathe regularly and to wear only clean clothes.
Student assembly at theCity Montessori School inIndia. The school teachesthe essential principles ofall religions to children frompreschool to college. Theschool stresses academicexcellence, globalism, andinterfaith harmony.
ThE insTiTuTions of ThE Baha’i faiThIn the Aqdas Baha’u’llah also sets down practical rules for theinternal structure of the Baha’i Faith. He describes the establishment of Houses of Justice in each city and a worldwide UniversalThe Baha’i Scriptures
61
soME ruLEs for LivingThE Baha’i LifETo be truthfulTo be trustworthyTo be faithfulTo be righteous and fear GodTo be just and fairTo be tactful and wiseTo be courteousTo be hospitableTo be perseveringTo be detachedTo be absolutely submissive tothe will of GodNot to stir up mischiefNot to be hypocriticalNot to be proudNot to be fanaticalNot to prefer one’s self to one’s neighborNot to contend with one’s neighborNot to indulge one’s passionsNot to lament in adversityNot to contend with those in authorityNot to lose one’s temperNot to anger one’s neighbor
House of Justice that would rule on matters of faith not specifically addressed inBaha’i scriptures. He describes the institution of guardianship to lead the faith afterhim. The Aqdas thus anticipated many ofthe institutions that the young religionwould need as it grew and spread undernew leadership.
ThE MEssagE of ThE aqDasThe Aqdas is the guide for the new worldorder that Baha’u’llah has come to establish: If humanity will follow its commandments the world will be united as onecountry; war, famine, and suffering willend; and peace will rule the earth. Thelaws of the Aqdas are not Baha’u’llah’sbut God’s. Baha’u’llah calls these laws “theCounsel of God”; they are God’s word,God’s bounty, and God’s treasure for thosewho will listen and take them to heart.Baha’u’llah writes that the Aqdas is thebeginning of divine knowledge, the lampthat will lead all the people of the humanrace in the path of truth.
suPPLEMEnTary TEXTsThe Aqdas also includes supplementary materials that Baha’u’llahrevealed after the Aqdas was completed. The first of these is theTablet of Ishraqat, which instructs Baha’is to obey the rulingsof the House of Justice and to act according to the rules in theAqdas. All are to come together, as God wishes, for “Ye are all theleaves of one tree and the drops of one ocean.”Also included are the texts of the Obligatory Prayers. Theseare the Long Obligatory Prayer, the Medium Obligatory Prayer,the Short Obligatory Prayer, and the Prayer for the Dead.62
BAHA’I FAITH
Finally there is a section of questionsand answers. Here Baha’u’llah clarifies finepoints of the laws in the Aqdas, so therecan be no misunderstandings or arguments about interpreting their message.
ThE sEvEn vaLLEys
The Mantle of aSaintly CharacterThe purpose of the one true God inmanifesting Himself is to summon allmankind to truthfulness and sincerity, topiety and trustworthiness, to resignationand submissiveness to the will ofGod, to forbearance and kindliness, touprightness and wisdom. His object isto array every man with the mantle of asaintly character, and to adorn him withthe ornament of holy and goodly deeds.
The Seven Valleys is an essay that traces the journey of the soul toward theDivine Being. The Seven Valleys revealsBaha’u’llah’s mystical side. He wrote it following his two years alone in the mountains. In this book Baha’u’llah quotes from(In Baha’u’llah, Gleanings from thethe Quran and also from the Sufis, PerWritings of Baha’u’llah.)sian poets of the 13th century. Sufis wereIslamic mystics who believed that theycould reach the presence of God directly through repeated meditation and prayer.In his essay Baha’u’llah traces the journey of the soul throughseven valleys. These are the Valleys of Search, Love, Knowledge,Unity, Contentment, Wonderment, and finally the Valley of TruePoverty and Absolute Nothingness. This is the Valley of “dyingfrom self and living in God, of the being poor in self and rich inthe Desired One.” This is the goal and the end of the spiritualjourney. At last the seeker will see the Beloved. Having taken theright path, the seeker finds peace.
ThE worKs of ‘aBDu’L-BahaIn addition to the works of Baha’u’llah, his son ‘Abdu’l-Baha’swritings are also an important and often cited part of the Baha’iscriptures. More than 27,000 of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s letters survive.Many of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s works explain and enlarge on Baha’u’llah’swritings and echo his themes. “Man is, in reality, a spiritual being,and only when he lives in the spirit is he truly happy,” he writes.However many of his writings reveal focus on the Baha’i socialmessage.The Baha’i Scriptures
63
School of the Nations,Macao, China. Baha’is runor help fund schools opento children of all races andethnic backgrounds. Thisapproach reflects the Baha’ibelief that humanity isone race.
64
BAHA’I FAITH
The Baha’i Faith teaches that all of God’s children are equal inGod’s sight. God does not favor one nation over another. Therefore divisions that separate nations, races, and ethnic groups areartificial barriers. They are nothing but superstition and tradition. They bring discord and hatred among people who mustlearn that they are one.Rather than racial and ethnic division Baha’is should be awareof the beauty of diversity. They should think of humankind asbeing like a beautiful garden full of flowers, trees, and shrubs.Each flower has its own beauty, perfume, and color. Each tree isdifferent as well, with different leaves, flowers, and fruits. How-
ever they all come from the same earth.They all share the same sun and rain.
EquaLiTy of woMEn‘Abdu’l-Baha also champions the equality of the sexes; men and women are bothcreated by God, and “in the estimationof God, there is no distinction as to maleand female.” The only thing that mattersis a pure heart. God judges people by theiractions, not by whether they are male orfemale. Any differences in the capabilitiesof women and men, says ‘Abdu’l-Baha,are due entirely to a lack of opportunityand education. Equality of women is necessary and desirable for the progress ofhumanity.
Words into ActionOne of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s themes isthat good ideas must be carried intoaction. People all over the worldadmire beautiful sayings and noblethoughts, ‘Abdu’l-Baha says, butfew of these ideas get carried intoaction. He goes on to say:But Baha’is must not be thus; they mustrise above this condition. Actions must bemore to them than words. By their actionsthey must be merciful and not merely bytheir words.Let your actions cry aloud to the worldthat you are indeed Baha’is, for it isactions that speak to the world and arethe cause of the progress of humanity.
EConoMiC MaTTErs‘Abdu’l-Baha writes that wealth and material possessions are not the ways to happiness. Economic policies that bring wealthto one person or nation at the expenseof another harm everyone. The fundamentals of economics are ruled by divineprinciples. They arise out of the heartsand minds of people and are spiritual innature.The Baha’i scriptures advocate voluntary sharing of wealth. People come closerto God through voluntary good deeds.The rich should help the poor of theirown free will because it is the right thingto do, not because they are forced to do it.Freely choosing to give to others leads tothe peace and comfort of society.
Racial EqualityAnother of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s themesis racial equality. He sees racialprejudice as an illusion and asuperstition. It is the cause ofmuch discord and war. He calls onBaha’is to reject all racial and ethnicprejudice absolutely:All men are servants of the One God.One God reigns over all the nations ofthe world and has pleasure in all Hischildren. All men are of one family; thecrown of humanity rests on the head ofevery human being.The Baha’i Scriptures
65
Baha’i PrayEr for PEaCEBe generous in prosperity, and thankful in adversity.Be worthy of the trust of thy neighbor, and look upon him with a bright and friendly face.Be a treasure to the poor, and admonisher to the rich,an answerer of the cry of the needy, a preserver of the sanctity of thy pledge.Be fair in thy judgment, and guarded in thy speech.Be unjust to no man, and show all meekness to all men.Be a lamp unto them that walk in darkness, a joy to the sorrowful, a sea for the thirsty,a haven for the distressed, an upholder and defender of the victim of oppression.Let integrity and uprightness distinguish all thine acts.Be a home for the stranger, a balm to the suffering, a tower of strength for the fugitive.Be eyes to the blind, a guiding light to the feet of the erring.Be an ornament to the countenance of truth, a crown to the brow of fidelity,a pillar of the temple of righteousness, a breath of life to the body of mankind.
‘Abdu’l-Baha (in the center of the group), eldest son of Baha’u’llah, standing under the Eiffel Toweron his visit to Paris in 1912. This was part of a journey lasting 28 months that ‘Abdu’l-Baba tookthrough the Western world, visiting communities and speaking about the Baha’i Faith.66
BAHA’I FAITH
wriTings of ThE BaB
The Wings of a BirdBecause Baha’is consider their religion toIn his writings ‘Abdu’l-Bahahave begun with the Bab, his writings toocompares humankind to a bird:are part of Baha’i scripture. His principalwork, the Bayan, is a book of holy laws. InThe world of humanity has two wings—setting down these laws the Bab replacesone is women and the other men. Notthe laws in the Quran. His is clearly a newuntil both wings are equally developedcan the bird fly. Should one wing remainrevelation. The Bab offered new forms ofweak, flight is impossible. Not untilritual prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage, asthe world of women becomes equal towell as new forms of tithing, or payingtheworld of men in the acquisition ofpart of one’s income to the faith. He alsovirtues and perfections, can success andcreated the 19-month solar calendar, laterprosperity be attained as they ought to be.adapted by Baha’u’llah.Baha’u’llah based parts of the Aqdas onthe Bayan. Much of the Bab’s other work was destroyed duringthe persecution of the Babis. However portions remain, particularly prayers. These are included in Baha’i Prayers.
The Baha’i Scriptures
67
CHAPTER 5
THE SPREAD OFTHE BAHA’I FAITH
F
rom the time Babism was reborn as the Baha’i Faith in 1863,Baha’is actively taught people about the faith. Its leaders sentout believers to spread the word. In its early years most of thegrowth of the Baha’i Faith took place in Persia, or Iran, where thefaith began. However there were early followers in other countries as well. Parts of the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Egypt, India,and Turkmenistan had Baha’i followers. By the 1880s, still within Baha’u’llah’s lifetime, the religion had rebounded from a fewhundred Babi survivors to many thousands of followers.
ThE Baha’i faiTh in ThE oTToMan EMPirE anD EgyPTAlmost from its beginnings the Baha’i Faith had small groupsof followers in parts of the Ottoman Empire, such as Baghdad,where Baha’u’llah spent part of his exile. There was also a community in Egypt. Mostly these communities were made up ofPersians who had moved out of Iran. These groups remainedsmall. They were constantly under threat of arrest and exile. SoA view of the mansion at Bahji outside the city of Acre (Akko)where Baha’u’llah lived after the order to keep him in prisonwas no longer enforced by officials. The Baha’i community hasspent many decades beautifying the buildings and groundswhere Baha’u’llah spent his final years.68
BAHA’I FAITH
The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
6
they did little to spread the faith. In the 1890s in Egypt, however,some native Egyptians converted to the Baha’i Faith, creating asmall but devoted community.
BriTish inDia anD BurMaBy the 1870s there was a small network of Baha’is in northernIndia. At first it was made up of Indians who had been educatedin Persia and had come into contact with the Baha’i Faith there.Later the Baha’i teacher Sulayman Kahn traveled widely in thearea and the number of converts grew. He then moved to Burma(present-day Myanmar) and established a community of Baha’isin that country.
ThE Baha’i faiTh in russian TErriToryThe Baha’i Faith established itself early in the Russian territories that shared a border with Persia. The first was Azerbaijan.Babism had taken root in the Persian-controlled area of Azerbaijan when the Bab was in prison there. Beginning in the 1860sthe Babi groups became Baha’is. The religion spread outwardinto the Russian territories in Azerbaijan and into Ashkhabad,Turkmenistan. Persian immigrants added to its numbers. Thenin 1889 some Shii extremists planned and carried out an attackagainst the Ashkhabad community. To the surprise of the Baha’isthe Russian authorities caught the extremists and put them ontrial. They were convicted and put in jail for their crime. This wasthe first time in Baha’i history that a government had not toleratedpersecution directed at Baha’is. The Russian territories became apopular place for Baha’i resettlement and the community grew.True to their social mission the Baha’is in Ashkhabad established schools, a public bath, a hostel (which offers inexpensiverooms to travelers), a clinic, and a hospital. In 1907 they built thefirst Baha’i house of worship. They were probably the first Baha’icommunity to elect a council. In so doing they became the modelfor Baha’i communities to come. The Turkmenistan communityflourished until the coming of the communists, who outlawed allreligious practice.70
BAHA’I FAITH
ThE Baha’i faiTh in iTs hoMELanDPersia was the cradle of Babism and later of the Baha’i Faith.From the 1880s on more and more people there began joiningthe Baha’i Faith. Many of these new converts were prominent insociety. They included Muslim clergy, government officials, andeven members of the royal family. They also included membersof the Jewish and Zoroastrian faiths. Around this time the religion began to encourage women to become active participants.Wives and daughters joined husbands and fathers. Families beganto bring up their children as Baha’is.From prison in Acre Baha’u’llah kept up a lively correspondence with his followers. To help in administering the growing faith he named four leading Baha’is “Hands of the Cause ofGod.” They helped to organize what was becoming an importantnational movement.Baha’is in Persia still suffered persecution at the hands of theMuslim clergy and the Persian government. However they followed Baha’u’llah’s teachings and deliberately did not fight back.Baha’u’llah urged his followers to avoid politics but to be loyalcitizens of their country. Their steadfastness in the face of persecution won themThe Secret of Divinesympathy and more Baha’u’llah died in 1892 his eldestson, ‘Abdu’l-Baha, became the head ofthe Baha’i Faith. ‘Abdu’l-Baha was bornin 1844, the same year the Bab declaredhis mission. His birth name was AbbasEffendi, but early in life he took the name‘Abdu’l-Baha, meaning “Servant of Baha.”From an early age he worked as hisfather’s assistant. As a young man inAdrianople (Edirne) he was responsiblefor Baha’u’llah’s large household, whichincluded not only his mother and sister
When Baha’u’llah moved out ofAcre ‘Abdu’l-Baha stayed behind. Heattended the local mosque, gave tothe poor, and prayed regularly. Hefitted in well with the local Muslimsociety. However he was constantlythinking about the faith and howit might develop in the future. In1875 he wrote The Secret of DivineCivilization, which discussed themodernizing of Iran. In 1886 hewrote A Traveler’s Narrative, a shorthistory of the Baha’i Faith.
The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
71
A photograph of ‘Abdu’l-Baha as a young man. Like his father before him, ‘Abdu’l-Baha neverattended school. However he read widely and the Ottoman leaders in Acre respected hisscholarship. He married the daughter of a Baha’i merchant in 1873. Together they had sevenchildren, of whom four daughters survived to adulthood. Against the usual Muslim traditionof the time of taking a number of wives, Baha’u’llah had stated that taking only one wife waspreferred. Under ‘Abdu’l-Baha monogamy became the Baha’i standard.72
BAHA’I FAITH
but also his three half brothers and two half sisters, as well as disciples and other family members. He also served as one of hisfather’s secretaries. His father came to rely heavily on him andreferred to him as “the Master.”
DiffiCuLTiEs of suCCEssionMost Baha’is accepted ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s authority without question.However, he immediately faced problems within his own family.His half brother Muhammad-Ali felt that he himself should havebeen named leader. In a move that echoed the actions of MirzaYahya against Baha’u’llah years earlier, he began a campaign todiscredit his older brother.‘Abdu’l-Baha’s sister, wife, and daughters remained loyal tohim, along with an uncle and the uncle’s family. However othermembers of the family sided with Muhammad-Ali. The familyinfighting did little damage to the loyalty of most followers but itdrew the attention of the Turkish authorities to the Baha’is. Theyreinstated the order of confinement and ‘Abdu’l-Baha was onceagain a prisoner in Acre.Muhammad-Ali’s opposition—which moved from initialacceptance of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s leadership, through obstruction,to outright rejection of his authority—only made ‘Abdu’l-Baha’sown position clearer. ‘Abdu’l-Baha continued with the idea thatBaha’i followers should remain loyal to the sacred covenant, oragreement, that protected Baha’i unity. This covenant requiredthem to be obedient to their appointed leaders. He denouncedMuhammad-Ali and his family as “covenant-breakers” for theirdisloyalty and ousted them from the faith.The Baha’i Faith has weathered a number of attempts by individuals to usurp the leadership of the faith, all of which havefailed. The Baha’i Faith remains to this day an undivided faith,unlike so many other religions.
ThE Baha’i faiTh sPrEaDs To ThE wEsTAmericans first heard of Baha’u’llah at the Parliament of theWorld’s Religions, a world religion conference held in Chicago inThe Spread of the Baha’i Faith
73
1893. At about the same time a Syrian merchant named IbrahimKheiralla immigrated to the United States. A recent convert tothe Baha’i Faith, he offered classes in the Baha’i Faith for anyonewho was interested. By 1894 a small Baha’i group organized inChicago, and the group grew quickly.One early American convert was Phoebe Randolph Hearst,mother of the millionaire publisher William Randolph Hearst. In1898 she gathered a group of Baha’i pilgrims, including Kheiralla,and they traveled to Acre to meet ‘Abdu’l-Baha.‘Abdu’l-Baha’s personality had a great impact on the Americans. His brilliant mind, his charm, and his spiritual understanding led them to compare him to Jesus Christ of Christianity. Mrs.Hearst in particular thought that ‘Abdu’l-Baha might be the Messiah. ‘Abdu’l-Baha denied this. “No name, no title, no mention,no commendation have I, nor will ever have, except ‘Abdu’lBaha. This is my greatest yearning. This is my eternal life. This ismy everlasting glory.”The Hearst party returned to America full of excitement.Their joy and enthusiasm were contagious. In the next few yearsa steady stream of visitors poured into Acre. By 1900 there weremore Baha’i groups, probably numbering around 1,500 people inall, in the West, with groups located in the United States, Canada,Paris, France, and London, England.
ThE LEaDErshiP of ‘aBDu’L-BahaFrom Acre ‘Abdu’l-Baha continued to direct the faith by lettersand through followers across the region. He was an inspired leader. He spoke with great authority about the spiritual and theological aspects of the religion, and his words drew many peopleto him. He also had a gift for organization. He worked to create the internal structure that would govern the Baha’i Faith. Heencouraged Baha’is in different parts of the world to elect localcouncils.In 1908 a revolution freed all political prisoners of the Ottoman Empire. ‘Abdu’l-Baha was free to leave Acre. He first went toHaifa, where he oversaw the burial of the Bab’s remains in a shrine74
BAHA’I FAITH
The Shrine of the Bab on the slopes of Mount Carmel, Israel,set among the terraced gardens and completed in 2001.The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
75
on the slope of Mount Carmel. This was the place Baha’u’llahhimself had chosen. It was also the place where the world centerof the faith would be established.‘Abdu’l-Baha was in his 60s and his health was not good. However for the first time since his childhood he was not a prisoner.Finally able to travel freely, he began his active ministry. Underhis leadership the faith grew and spread and many of its doctrinesbecame established.‘Abdu’l-Baha also wrote his will. It would not be made public until after his death, but it was the blueprint for the growthand spread of the Baha’i Faith. In it he appointed his grandson,Shoghi Effendi, to be the Guardian of the Faith after him. ShoghiEffendi was then only a child. However in him ‘Abdu’l-Baha sawthe future of the young religion.
‘aBDu’L-Baha’s TravELs‘Abdu’l-Baha left Palestine in 1910 bound for Egypt. He was stillsuffering the effects of his long imprisonment. He stayed in Egyptfor several months, resting and recuperating. Then in August1911 he sailed for France. This was the beginning of a journey thattook him throughout the Western world. In the next 28 months,he visited London, England; Paris, France; Stuttgart, Germany;and other European towns and cities as well. Then he sailed forNorth America.‘Abdu’l-Baha arrived in New York City on April 11, 1912. Hetraveled the country from coast to coast, visiting more than 40cities and towns. In Wilmette, Illinois, he laid the cornerstone forthe first Baha’i temple in North America. He visited Eliot, Maine,where the Baha’i Faith was presented at the Green Acre retreat.He traveled to Canada and spent time in Montreal.
A nEW WAvE of BAHA’i BEliEvERsAmerican and European newspapers gave ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s travels wide coverage. ‘Abdu’l-Baha spoke in churches, universities,peace societies, union halls, and living rooms. It was the first timemany Westerners had heard of the Baha’i Faith. For the young76
BAHA’I FAITH
Baha’i communities in Europe, Canada, and the United States itwas a wonderful opportunity to meet their leader, listen to hiswords, and deepen their understanding of both the spiritual andsocial aspects of the faith. By the end of his tour there was a wholenew wave of Baha’i believers.
On his visit to the UnitedStates in 1912, ‘Abdu’l-Bahaatrracted Baha’i followersand their families tomeetings, discussions, andsocial gatherings.
imPACT of THE AmERiCAn CommUniTyThe American Baha’i community, small as it was, had a greatimpact on the growth of the faith. The group moved to translate Baha’i literature into English. They wrote brochures explaining the faith directed at Christian readers. They began to set uplocal councils and to plan for a yearly national convention. Somemembers traveled to Persia to help with medical and educationalwork. Others became missionary teachers. They visited existingcommunities in such places as Hawaii and Germany. In the nextfew years they visited Japan, Australia, and Brazil, and establishedcommunities there.The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
77
RETURn To HAifA‘Abdu’l-Baha returned to Haifa shortly before the beginning ofWorld War I (1914–18), after more than two years of constanttravel. The world situation soon made travel impossible. Heturned again to writing letters to his followers. He wrote theTablets of the Divine Plan (1917–18) to Baha’is in North America.In these letters, he urged his followers to begin a campaign tospread the faith not only in the United States and Canada, butalso throughout the world.
‘aBDu’L-Baha’s finaL yEars‘Abdu’l-Baha’s travels had made him a world figure. He was recognized as the leader of an important religious movement. Following the war he was able to use his influence to help Palestine whenit faced a famine. The British, who had recently taken control ofPalestine, made him a knight of the British Empire in 1920.‘Abdu’l-Baha died on November 28, 1921. His funeral broughttogether an estimated 10,000 people. They included representatives from the Muslim, Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, andJewish communities of Palestine; also in attendance were theBritish high commissioner and the governor of Jerusalem. In the13 years between the end of his confinement as a political prisoner in Acre and his death, he had given the Baha’i Faith worldrecognition. He had clarified its goals, both spiritual and social.And he had given it an organizational structure that would carryit into the next phase of its existence.
sHogHi EffEndiThe terms of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s will, which made his grandsonShoghi Effendi the Guardian of the Faith after him, were clear.It named Shoghi Effendi the “sign of God” on earth and directedBaha’is to be obedient to his direction.Shoghi Effendi Rabbani was born in 1897. He was the son of‘Abdu’l-Baha’s daughter and the oldest of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s 13 grandchildren. As a teenager he spent his summers as his grandfather’sassistant. He graduated from college in Beirut, Lebanon, in 191878
BAHA’I FAITH
DirECTing ThE Baha’i faiTh
F
or the last years of his life, ‘Abdu’l-Bahalived in Haifa, directing the work of theBaha’i Faith and corresponding with Baha’ifaithful. The faith was now established inmany countries around the world and its followers numbered around 100,000. An activestudent of world affairs, he warned that the
peace accords that had ended World WarI would not end conflict, and that the Balkan nations would continue to be unstable.Many of his predictions proved to be true. Heinsisted, however, that they were not divinerevelation but simply rational thinking.
‘Adbu’l-Baha returning to his home on Haparsim Street inHaifa, Israel.
The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
7
and became his grandfather’s chief secretary. In 1920 he went tostudy at Oxford University in England. He wanted to improvehis English so that he could translate Baha’i scriptures. He was atOxford when his grandfather died.
sHogHi EffEndi AssUmEs lEAdERsHiPShoghi Effendi was 24 years old when he became leader of theBaha’i Faith. Most Baha’is accepted him gladly as his grandfather’s true heir. The young man faced a huge task. ‘Abdu’l-Bahahad grown old serving the religion. He had seemed like a father tohis followers. Shoghi Effendi was young with modern ideas and aWestern education. His leadership would be quite different.It took several years for Shoghi Effendi to take control of hismany new duties. At first he worked day and night, almost to theverge of collapse. Over the course of his 36 years as Guardian hesent more than 17,500 letters. He kept up with the progress of allthe existing Baha’i communities. The situation in the Middle East,where the religion was still under attack, required his response.During this time he translated a great many of Baha’u’llah’s writings into English.
ThE sCriPTuraL Canon
O
ne of Shoghi Effendi’s greatest contributions to the faith was his interpretation and translation of the works ofBaha’u’llah and ‘Abdu’l-Baha. His grandfather’s will had named him the sole authority for interpreting Baha’i works. ShoghiEffendi was fluent in Persian and Arabic aswell as English. His ability to translate thescriptures into English was a major factorin the growth of the American Baha’i community. Over the years of his guardianshiphe was the principal translator of mostof the Baha’i scriptures. He also wrote animportant history of the first 100 years ofthe Baha’i Faith, God Passes By.
80
BAHA’I FAITH
A ClEAR vision foR THE fAiTHShoghi Effendi had a clear vision forthe progression of the faith. They werehanded down to him from ‘Abdu’l-Bahaand founded upon the original writingsof Baha’u’llah, especially in the Kitabi-Aqdas. Two aspects of his leadershipwere especially important to him in thiscontext. From the beginning of his timeas its leader he focused on developing itsadministration and on spreading the faithworldwide.Shoghi Effendi dedicated his life almostentirely to achieving the goals he had beengiven for the Baha’i Faith. Unlike his grand-
Shoghi Effendi became leaderof the Baha’i Faith at the age of24. He worked for 36 years asGuardian until his unexpecteddeath in London in 1957.
The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
81
father he did not attend the local mosque. He sent representativesto local affairs rather than going himself. Also unlike his grandfather he did not visit Baha’i communities in other countries. In hismany letters he referred to his position as Guardian rather thanto himself personally.
THE AdminisTRATivE PlAnAmong Shoghi Effendi’s many accomplishments as Guardianwas his development of a systematic administration based uponthe writings of both Baha’u’llah and ‘Abdu’l-Baha. The faith hadgrown too large to be administered by just one person or evenone group. He therefore introduced an organizational system. Toaid the spiritual assemblies that made up the faith he introducedrequirements for voting, membership rolls, and national centersto administer such matters as translating and publishing. A betternetwork of Baha’i communities emerged.Shoghi Effendi created an International Baha’i Council to helphim in his work. He extended the Hands of the Cause of God byadding a group of devoted believers to this directing council.Their job was to help the national spiritual assemblies achievetheir goals and to advance and protect the faith. Finally he established support boards to assist the Hands.
THE TEACHing PlAnOnce the assemblies were functioning smoothly Shoghi Effendi turned his attention to teaching. This was to be the principal means for spreading the faith around the world. Under hisdirection a seven-year plan (1937–44) was produced. It called onBaha’is to settle in all the American states, Canadian provinces,and Latin American countries where there were no Baha’is. TheBaha’is who undertook this challenge were known as “pioneers.”American Baha’is were also to work toward finishing the Baha’itemple at Wilmette, Illinois (near Chicago).A second seven-year plan (1946–53) directed Baha’is in NorthAmerica to continue their work in the Americas. They were alsoto help Europe recover after World War II (1939–45) and to re82
BAHA’I FAITH
‘Abdu’l-Baha laid the cornerstone for the house of worship inWilmette, Illinois, in 1912 during his visit to America. It wasthe first Baha’i temple built in the West.The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
83
establish the faith there. Other national assemblies receivedattainment targets as well.In 1953 Shoghi Effendi launched a 10-year global crusade. Itspurpose was to establish the faith throughout the world in all thecountries where it was not yet established.
ThE Baha’i worLD CEnTEr anD shoghi EffEnDi’s LEgaCy
Shoghi Effendi died inLondon in 1957 and isburied there in the GreatNorthern Cemetery.According to Baha’i lawsBaha’is are buried withinone hour’s traveling of theplace where they died.
Under Shoghi Effendi the Baha’i World Center in Haifa, Israel,became a reality. First he purchased the mansion at Bahji, nearAkko (formerly Acre), where Baha’u’llah had lived at the end ofhis life. Later he purchased more land and created gardens. Hedid the same with land around the Shrine of the Bab and directedthe erection of a golden-domed building over the shrine. ShoghiEffendi saw to the construction of an international archives building nearby. In it are kept Baha’i scriptures and relics. He approveda master plan for the development of a center that would eventually be a complex of buildings, gardens,and shrines. It would be the place thatBaha’is from all over the world could identify as the center of their religion.
THE HAnds of THE CAUsE of godIn 1957 Shoghi Effendi died unexpectedlyof natural causes in London. He had not lefta will. ‘Abdu’l-Baha had obviously meantthe institution of Guardian to be handeddown within the family, but Shoghi Effendi and his wife had no children. He hadnot named a successor. There would be nomore guardians. Nor had he left specificinstructions for the direction of the faithafter his death. The 10-year plan was onlyhalf completed. Shoghi Effendi’s death wasa serious loss to Baha’is worldwide.Shortly before his death, however,Shoghi Effendi had named the Hands of84
BAHA’I FAITH
the Cause of God “Chief Stewards” of the faith. He had giventhem the authority to see that plans for the future were carriedout. They therefore took on the responsibility of carrying thefaith forward.Under their stewardship the faith continued to grow andspread, and Shoghi Effendi’s blueprint for a global religion tookon substance. The 10-year plan moved forward on schedule,eventually achieving its goals. The Hands of the Cause of Godalso took steps toward establishing the Universal House of Justice, to which they handed over their authority in 1963.
ConTinUEd gRoWTHShoghi Effendi worked all his life to spread the faith throughoutthe world. To a large extent he succeeded. The plans he initiatedexceeded their goals. In 1935, before the first plan, there were139 spiritual assemblies worldwide and Baha’is lived in 1,034localities. By 1953 those numbers had increased to 670 spiritualassemblies and 2,700 localities.Shoghi Effendi did not live to see the completion of his 10-yearcrusade. However his plan vastly increased the Baha’i Faith’s geographical presence in the world. By 1963 Baha’i had 4,437 spiritualassemblies and was established in 14,437 localities. The numberof national assemblies increased from 10 in 1935 to 56 in 1963.During Shoghi Effendi’s time as Guardian the number of peopleprofessing the Baha’i Faith had reached more than 400,000. In thenext half century it would grow even more.
The Spread of the Baha’i Faith
85
CHAPTER 6
BAHA’I BELIEFAND WORSHIP
B
aha’i worship has few formal structures. There are no priests,ministers, mullahs, or rabbis. There is no liturgy and thereare no rituals. As in most other areas of the religion a great dealis left up to the individual. Baha’is guide themselves along thepath that leads them to spiritual truth. The whole of Baha’i life isa spiritual quest.
ThE sPiriTuaL JournEyBaha’u’llah writes that all creation reflects divine attributes. Yet ofall creation, human beings are particularly special. Only humanscan reflect all of the attributes of God. “Alone of all createdthings, man hath been singled out for so great a favor, so enduring a bounty,” says Baha’u’llah. Human lives have two aspects,he says—the material or animal side, and the spiritual side; whatmakes a person truly human is his or her spiritual nature.According to Baha’u’llah people cannot find true happinessin worldly things: “The world is but a show, vain and empty, amere nothing, bearing the semblance of reality.” He tells his followers that instead of grasping at material things they must try toThe establishment of the Baha’i World Center was the‘Fulfillment of the Tablet of Carmel’. The building of theCenter confirmed Baha’u’llah’s vision for the slopes ofMount Carmel in Haifa, Israel.86
BAHA’I FAITH
Baha’i Belief and Worship
87
God’s Wondrous BountiesIn Gleanings Baha’u’llah writes:Should a man wish to adorn himselfwith the ornaments of the earth, to wearits apparels, or partake of the benefits itcan bestow, no harm can befall him, if healloweth nothing whatever to intervenebetween him and God, for God hathordained every good thing, whethercreated in the heavens or in the earth, forsuch of his servants as truly believe inHim. Eat ye, O people, of the good thingswhich God hath allowed you, and deprivenot yourself from his wondrous bounties.Render thanks and praise unto him, andbe of them that are truly thankful.
Best Beloved of All ThingsThe best beloved of all things in My sightis Justice; turn not away there from ifthou desirest Me, and neglect it not that Imay confide in thee. By its aid thou shaltsee with thine own eyes and not throughthe eyes of others, and shalt know ofthine own knowledge and not throughthe knowledge of thy neighbor. Ponderthis in thy heart: how it behooveth thee tobe. Verily [truly] justice is my gift to theeand the sign of my loving-kindness. Set itthen before thine eyes.(In Baha’u’llah, Hidden Words, 2.)88
BAHA’I FAITH
form the divine power within them. At thesame time people are not to deny themselves the good things of the world in thename of religion. The goal is moderationand thankfulness, not extreme self-denial.
DivinE aTTriBuTEsCertain attributes give humans spiritualpower. According to Baha’u’llah theseinclude justice, love, trustworthiness andtruthfulness, purity and chastity, actions,and service to others. People who seek todevelop these qualities within themselvesare following a spiritual path.
JUsTiCE And lovEBaha’u’llah particularly stresses the importance of justice. Baha’is must always be fairin their treatment of others and respectthe rights of all. They should also show thesame consideration to themselves. “Be fairto yourselves and to others, that the evidences of justice may be revealed, throughyour deeds, among Our faithful servants,”he says.
TRUE sPiRiTUAl lovELove is also very important. ‘Abdu’l-Bahapoints out that there are many kinds oflove: love of family, of country, of institutions, of one’s own race. However, allof these are imperfect. In loving theirown country, for example, some peoplemay find fault with other countries. Truespiritual love is universal and unlimited. Itreaches out to everyone. Baha’u’llah also
praises other qualities that grow out of love for humanity. Thesequalities include kindness, friendliness, compassion, consideration, patience, and generosity.
TRUsTWoRTHinEssAccording to Baha’i scripture trustworthiness is the basis of allhuman interaction. Without trustworthiness people cannot truly conduct the business of life. Prosperity is built on trust. Alongwith this goes truthfulness, which ‘Abdu’l-Baha calls “the foun-
Baha’is in Zambia singingand clapping during aperiod of devotion beforetheir study circle beginsin the home of a localcommunity member.
Baha’i Belief and Worship
8
dation of all human virtues.” A truthful person is always sincereand deals honestly with others.
PURiTy And CHAsTiTyPurity and chastity are required of all Baha’is. However, they arewarned not to become puritanical or self-denying. They shouldstrive for moderation in matters of dress, language, and amusements. They should be modest, pure, and temperate, and shouldkeep their thoughts pure. They are to be chaste, but not to anextreme. And they should develop healthy lifestyles: Baha’is arediscouraged from smoking, and are forofferden to use alcohol ormind-altering drugs unless prescribed by a physician for a medical condition.
WoRK And sERviCE“Let deeds, not words, be your adorning,” Baha’u’llah writes. “Theessence of faith is fewness of words and abundance of deeds.”One way that Baha’is show their faith is in service to others.Baha’is donate their time to teaching or community projects. Inthe Baha’i Faith it is a duty to have a trade or profession. Baha’isare asked to use their skills to enrich both their own lives andthe lives of those around them. Work is ashorT oBLigaTory PrayErform of worship.
T
here are three obligatory prayers. ABaha’i may choose any one of them.The Short Obligatory Prayer is one suchprayer; it is to be said sometime betweennoon and sunset:
I bear witness, O my God, that Thou hascreated me to know Thee and to worshipThee. I testify, at this moment, to mypowerlessness and to Thy might, to mypoverty and to Thy wealth.There is none other God but Thee, theHelp in Peril, the Self-Subsisting. 0
BAHA’I FAITH
Baha’i Laws anD oBLigaTionsTo Baha’is discipline is an essential andintegral part of reaching any goal, andspiritual progress requires spiritual discipline at all times. Baha’u’llah offered hisfollowers a number of laws to help themwork toward unity and harmony. Amongthese laws are social laws, such as the lawsfor marriage, and obligations for achieving spiritual growth. These include prayer,reading of scriptures, meditation, andfasting.
PRAyERPrayer is one of the most important obligations of a Baha’i. EveryBaha’i is expected to pray daily and to meditate. Baha’is may create their own prayers, or they may use any of the many prayerswritten by the Bab, Baha’u’llah, and ‘Abdu’l-Baha, which havebeen translated into many languages. The only requirementis that one of the daily prayers must come from the obligatoryprayers of Baha’u’llah.
mUsiC, sCRiPTURE, And mEdiTATionPrayers may be spoken, chanted, or sung. Baha’u’llah approved ofmusic, and according to ‘Abdu’l-Baha, “The art of music is divineand effective. It is the food of the soul and spirit.” Baha’i hymns arewords from the scriptures set to music.Baha’u’llah also instructshis followers to read scripture and to meditate. This duty requiresthem to read from the scriptures twice a day, morning and evening, and to think about the essential meaning. The act of meditating helps to turn the individual’s mind away from the worldand toward spiritual things. According to ‘Abdu’l-Baha, “Whenyou meditate you are speaking with your own spirit. In that stateof mind you put certain questions to your spirit and the spiritanswers: the light breaks forth and the reality is revealed.”
fAsTingAnother Baha’i obligation is fasting. During the Baha’i month ofAla, from March 2 to March 20, Baha’is fast from sunrise to sunset, as Muslims do during the holy month of Ramadan. This isa time of spiritual preparation for the New Year, which beginson March 21. According to Shoghi Effendi the fast is a period ofmeditation and prayer that leads to spiritual renewal. The Baha’ifast symbolizes their need to turn away from the materialisticworld and toward God.
MarriagEIn the Baha’i Faith marriage is recommended but not required.According to ‘Abdu’l-Baha, “Baha’i marriage is the commitBaha’i Belief and Worship
1
Loving Companionsand ComradesThe Baha’i Faith requires that boththe man and the woman consentfreely to the marriage and that theyhave each obtained the consent oftheir respective parents. ‘Abdu’lBaha emphasizes the importanceof the couple’s knowing each otherwell. They should “exercise theutmost care to become thoroughlyacquainted with the character of theother . . . Their purpose must be this:to become loving companions andcomrades and at one with each otherfor time and eternity.”
ment of the two parties one to the other,and their mutual attachment of mind andheart.” The Baha’i Faith recognizes theimportance of the physical bond of marriage but stresses that the spiritual side ismore important. Since the time of ‘Abdu’lBaha’s leadership, monogamy betweena man and a woman is the only form ofmarriage permitted. Baha’is consider theinstitution of marriage to be God-givenand vital to society.The marriage ceremony has no setform. Couples may write their own service. They may incorporate any localcustoms they wish. The only set part ofthe ceremony is that they must exchangea vow before witnesses. That vow is, “We
Three newlywed couples having their wedding photos taken at theentrance plaza of the Baha’i Terraces on Mount Carmel, Haifa. 2
BAHA’I FAITH
will all, verily, aoffere by the Will of God.” Divorce is strongly discouraged. However, it may be permitted as a last resort after ayear of separation and attempts to reconcile. If the couple stillcannot agree, permission to divorce is granted.
faMiLy LifE anD ChiLDrEnBaha’is place great importance on family. The family is the sourceof spiritual growth for the individual. It is also the foundationof society. The family provides a spiritual atmosphere for children to grow andKindness to Animalslearn. The education of children is centralThe physical sensibilities and instincts areto Baha’i belief.common to animal and man . . . the poorThe Baha’i Faith teaches that the mostanimals cannot speak . . . therefore oneimportant social function of marriage ismust be very considerate toward animalsthat of raising children. Parents are to creand show greater kindness towards themate an atmosphere of love and harmonythan to man. Educate the children inin their home. In such an atmospheretheir infancy in such a way that they maybecome increasingly kind and merciful toall members of the family can flourish.the animals.Parents must set the example for theirchildren. They must be truthful, free ofprejudice, and just. In their relationshipwith each other they must demonstratethe equality of men and women.
THREE Kinds of EdUCATionBaha’is recognize three kinds of education. Physical education provides the skillsthat enable people to survive. Educationin reading and writing, arts and sciences,allows people to participate in the worldand to enjoy the benefits of knowledge.Spiritual education and respect for all living things makes individuals completehuman beings.Education of children is a religious dutyin the Baha’i Faith. Education begins at,
(In ‘Abdu’l-Baha, Tabletsof ‘Abdu’l-Baha.)
Children’s PrayerO God! Educate these children. Thesechildren are the plants of Thine orchard,the flowers of Thy meadow, the roses ofThy garden. Let Thy rain fall upon them;let the Sun of Reality shine upon themwith Thy love. Let Thy breeze refresh themin order that they may be trained, growand develop, and appear in the utmostbeauty. Thou art the Giver. Thouart the Compassionate.(In ‘Abdu’l-Baha, Baha’i Prayers.)
Baha’i Belief and Worship
3
A moral education class forchildren in a Baha’i schoolin Columbia. Baha’i childrenlearn about the meaningand teachings of their faithfrom an early age.
or even before, birth, as parents prepare themselves to bring uptheir children according to Baha’i teachings. A child’s early yearsare the most important in developing good character. “While thebranch is green and tender, it can easily be made straight,” writes‘Abdu’l-Baha. When children are old enough, they should go toschool. Baha’i writings stress the importance of educating girls,because they will be the first teachers of the next generation.
gRoWing sTRong in fAiTH‘Abdu’l-Baha says that parents must tend their children as a gardener tends tender young plants, seeing that they grow strongin faith. Parents should applaud and praise their good deeds andqualities, and dispense discipline if necessary. However, pun 4
BAHA’I FAITH
ishment is to be based on reason. It is never permitted to strikeor belittle a child, as these actions damage the child’s character.Children are the future and hope of the world. They must alwaysbe treated with respect and dignity.
ThE CovEnanTThe Baha’i Faith does not ask its members to follow any specificcreed or doctrine. Every Baha’i is free to understand the scripturesfor him- or herself. However all Baha’is live by a single unifyingprinciple. This is the covenant, or Baha’i spiritual agreement.The covenant is the unifying force that holds the Baha’i Faithtogether. “The power of the Covenant will protect the Cause ofBaha’u’llah from the doubts of the people of error,” wrote ‘Abdu’lBaha. “It is the fortified fortress of the cause of God and the firmpillar of the religion of God. Today no power can conserve theoneness of the Baha’i world save the Covenant of God.”The covenant leaves each follower of the Baha’i Faith free tointerpret the scriptures. At the same time it prohibits any individual from claiming that his or her interpretation is the only correct one. Only the writings of Baha’u’llah and the interpretationsof ‘Abdu’l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi are authoritative.People become Baha’is by agreeing to aoffere by the covenant.There is no conversion ceremony for those joining from anotherfaith, and no other requirement. Similarly there is no confirmation ceremony. When young people reach the age of 15, whichis considered the age of consent, they may choose to join the fellowship. They simply agree to aoffere by Baha’i laws and are admitted to the community.
DEaTh anD BuriaLIn the Baha’i Faith death marks the point at which the soul passesto the next world. As such, it is “the bearer of gladness” for thebeliever, according to Baha’u’llah. There is no way to prove thatthere is life after death. However, Baha’is believe that life doesnot end with death; the soul is eternal. ‘Abdu’l-Baha writes, “Toconsider that after the death of the body the spirit perishes isBaha’i Belief and Worship
5
like imagining that a bird in a cage will bedestroyed if the cage is broken, though thebird has nothing to fear from the destruction of the cage.”As the vessel that has housed the soulduring life, the body is treated with respect.Funeral ceremonies are dignified. There isa specific prayer for funerals. Otherwise,the ceremony may be as simple or elaborate as the family wishes. Cremation is forofferden. Bodies are buried so that they maynaturally become part of the earth. Baha’ilaws require that Baha’is be buried withinan hour’s journey of the place of death.The Baha’i Faith teaches that in thisworld believers can help, in the next world,those who have died by performing gooddeeds in their name or through prayer.Prayer of Intercessionfor the DeadO my God! Thou forgiver of sins,bestower of gifts, dispeller of afflictions!Verily, I beseech Thee to forgive the sinsof such as have abandoned the physicalgarment and have ascended to thespiritual world. O my Lord! Purify themfrom trespasses, dispel their sorrows, andchange their darkness into light. Causethem to enter the garden of happiness,cleanse them with the most pure water,and grant them to behold Thy splendorson the loftiest mount.(In ‘Abdu’l-Baha, Baha’i Prayers.)
6
BAHA’I FAITH
Dr. Rodney Clarken (on theleft), a Baha’i and one of theoriginal signatories of theEarth Keeper Covenant, helpingto collect “e-waste” fromoffices and homes. The Baha’icommunity is committed toEnvironmental policies in theirtraining and programs.
Baha’i Belief and Worship
7
ThE Baha’i CaLEnDarAll of the world’s calendars are associated in some way with religion. The calendar the secular world uses is actually the Christiancalendar, which begins with the birth of Jesus Christ. Howeverthere are also Jewish and Islamic calendars that date from important events in those religions. Baha’i religious life is organized
MonThs of ThE Baha’i yEar
T
he Baha’i year begins with the spring equinox, March 21, whichwas the traditional New Year’s Day in Iran. The months arenamed after spiritual or divine qualities.Each year has 19 months of 19 days. In order to bring the numberof days to 365, four additional days are inserted before the last monthof the year. These days are called Ayyam-i-Ha. Baha’is celebrate thistime by inviting others to their homes for Ayyam-i-Ha parties and bygiving gifts, visiting the sick, and performing community service.
8
BAHA’I FAITH
Baha’i 21April 9April 28May 17June 5June 24July 13August 1August 20September 8September 27October 16November 4November 23December 12December 31January 19February 7
Ala
Loftiness
March 2
around a solar calendar originally developed by the Bab andadapted by Baha’u’llah.
ThE 19-Day fEasTEvery 19 days, at the beginning of each Baha’i month, is a 19-DayFeast. If possible all Baha’is attend. The feast is the cornerstone ofeach local Baha’i community activity.The feast is actually a meeting with three parts. The first partof the meeting is devoted to prayers and the reading of scripture.This is the Baha’i worship service. The second part is an administrative session. People give reports on Baha’i activities in thearea. Individuals raise issues that are important to them andthe members of the community discuss them. Finally there arerefreshments. In smaller communities the 19-Day Feast is heldin someone’s home. In larger areas the feast may be held in theBaha’i centers.In some places Baha’is meet weekly for devotions and fellowship. They usually meet on Sundays, when most people do
A reflection meeting ata local Baha’i center inNtambo, Zambia. Baha’isregularly meet for prayersand scripture readings.The second part of thesegatherings is a discussionon the administration andprogress of their work in thelocal area.
Baha’i Belief and Worship

not have to work. Weekly devotions consist of reading from theworks of Baha’u’llah or other founders and reciting prayers.
Baha’i hoLy DaysBaha’is observe nine holy days, which commemorate events inBaha’i history. Feasts such as Navruz and Ridvan are celebrations. Baha’is gather to read scripture, consult, and share fellowship. During Ridvan, the “Most Great Festival,” they also electnew leaders. The Passing of Baha’u’llah and the Bab’s martyrdomare solemn occasions when Baha’is pray and read scriptures. Ifpossible they abstain from work on their holy days.
housEs of worshiPMost Baha’i services take place in homes or in Baha’i centers.However, Baha’i houses of worship are a very important part ofthe Baha’i Faith. Houses of worship are called Mashriqu’l-Adhkar, or “Dawning Place of the Praises of God.” At the present timethere are seven houses of worship worldwide—one for each continent. They are in Wilmette, Illinois, as well as New Delhi, India;Kampala, Uganda; Sydney, Australia; Frankfurt, Germany; Panama City, Panama; and Apia, Samoa. Currently there are plans tobuild a Baha’i house of worship in Tehran, Iran; Santiago, Chile;and Haifa, Israel. Specific sites have been chosen in these citiesbut no significant building work has taken place.Houses of worship are open for devoBaha’i hoLy Daystional services that people of all religions—or no religious background—mayNavruz (New Year)March 21attend. Services are nondenominational.Ridvan—first dayApril 21They consist only of readings and prayersRidvan—ninth dayApril 29from all of the world’s religions. Some ofRidvan—12th dayMay 2these have been set to music and may beThe Bab’s Declaration May 23Passing of Baha’u’llah May 29sung by a choir. There are no sermons.Martyrdom of the Bab July 9All Baha’i houses of worship have nineBirth of the BabOctober 20sides and a dome. These architectural feaBirth of Baha’u’llahNovember 12tures are symbols that the Baha’i Faith isopen to all religious traditions. They show100
BAHA’I FAITH
that people may come from many directions and through many doors, but gatherin recognition of one God.In addition to the existing houses ofworship, the Baha’i Faith owns property inother countries around the world, where itwill eventually build other houses of worship. More than 100 locations have beendesignated as suitable. In time Baha’isenvision that the Mashriqu’l-Adhkars willbe the centers of community life. Aroundthem they will build administrative centers, schools, colleges, clinics, homes forthe elderly, and other community services. In this way the house of worship willbe the central focus of communities thatcome together in peace and harmony andservice to God.
The Baha’i house of worship outside Sydney, Australia, is thefirst Baha’i temple built in the South Pacific. It was dedicatedin September 1961.
Baha’i Belief and Worship
101
CHAPTER 7
THE BAHA’ICOMMUNITY
T
he Baha’i Faith is organized around the Baha’i community. Inthe community Baha’is put their faith into practical action.Through the community Baha’is implement the social, educational, and spiritual goals of their religion.
ThE Baha’i aDMinisTraTivE orDErThe laws and rules of the Baha’i Faith and Baha’i institutionstogether form the Baha’i Administrative Order. The Administrative Order is the way that the Baha’i Faith is organized. To Baha’is,however, it is much more than a system of organization. Its foundations and guiding principles were laid down by its founders;it is therefore sacred. Baha’is understand that the institutionalframework of their faith puts words into actions, a central aim ofthe faith. Moreover, Baha’is believe that their model of community will eventually provide a working model for the construction by humankind of a global society. Baha’is therefore workdiligently to support it and follow its rules as the best hope forbringing peace and prosperity to all humanity.The Universal House of Justice at the Baha’iWorld Center in Haifa, Israel. Its members,elected by all the national assemblies, are thehighest authority in the Baha’i world.102
BAHA’I FAITH
The Baha’i Community
103
Baha’i insTiTuTionsUnlike most other organized religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the Baha’i Faith has no priests or clergy. It hasno professional religious scholars who interpret the scripturesfor believers. Baha’u’llah taught that a priesthood or clergy wasnot necessary. In earlier times, when few people could read andwrite, they needed a professional priesthood. They needed someone who could tell them what the Bible or the Quran said andhelp them to understand scripture. However the Baha’i Faith isa religion for the modern age. Modern society can give everyone the opportunity to read and write. This means that peoplecan read and understand the scriptures for themselves; a maturehumanity does not need a professional clergy.However, in most organized religions religious professionalshave another important function. They administer the businessof the religious body. They coordinate its local, regional, national,and international activities. They serve as a resource for religiousmatters. Many have publishing houses that produce literature forand about the religion. Others have business offices that overseemission efforts or schools. In the Baha’i Faith the administrativestructure performs these functions.
ThE sPiriTuaL assEMBLiEsWhenever an area has at least nine adult Baha’i members, thosenine or more people hold an annual election for the local spiritual assembly, the governing body for the faith in that area. It isresponsible for supervising the activities of the faith. Its dutiesinclude spreading the word about the Baha’i Faith, running itseducational programs, local publicity and publishing, holdingdevotional services and meetings, finances, and counseling onmatters of faith.A country with a sufficient number of local spiritual assemblies may form a national spiritual assembly. Elected delegatesattend an annual convention at which the national spiritualassembly is elected. National spiritual assemblies oversee andcoordinate the activities of the local assemblies.104
BAHA’I FAITH
Baha’is hold yearly elections in April during the festival of Ridvan. All voting is by secret ballot. Baha’i rules prohibit nominations or campaigning. Each member simply lists nine names onhis or her ballot. When the ballots are counted the nine individuals with the highest number of votes are elected to the assembly.Their term begins immediately after the election and they servefor one full year.The teachings of Baha’u’llah ask Baha’is to consider the qualities of the people they elect and to choose “only those who canbest combine the necessary qualities of unquestioned loyalty, ofselfless devotion, of a well-trained mind, of recognized abilityand mature experience.” However, Baha’u’llah encouraged hisfollowers to give preference to minority members.
Tamun Kosep (in thecenter), a traditional chiefand treasurer of the firstLocal Spiritual Assembly ofMadina, Papua New Guinea,flanked by other Baha’is ata community celebrationin 2004.
The Baha’i Community
105
ThE univErsaL housE of JusTiCEThe Universal House of Justice is the international governingbody of the Baha’i Faith and the highest authority in the Baha’iworld. It has authority for guarding and developing the faith, andaccording to the Baha’i texts, is explicitly described as “protected from error.” This authority was handed down directly from
Voting in 1998 to elect theUniversal House of Justice,the Supreme GoverningCouncil. Members of theUniversal House of Justiceare elected for five-yearterms by the members of allthe national assemblies.106
BAHA’I FAITH
goaLs of ThE PLans
A
n important function of the Universal House of Justice is the growth anddevelopment of the faith around the world.Since it began it has produced several plansfor spreading the faith. These have been theNine-Year Plan (1964–73); the Five-Year Plan(1974–79); the Seven-Year Plan (1979–86); the
Six-Year Plan (1986–92); the Three-Year Plan(1993–96); the Four-Year Plan (1996–2000);the Twelve-Month Plan (2000–01); and theFive-Year Plan (2001–06). The plans are crucialto Baha’i administration because they set thegoals for the spreading of the faith. The goalsof the different plans have included:
Spreading the faith around the world and increasing its membership.Establishing and improving the functioning of the Baha’i administrative order in allparts of the world and helping local communities to take on more responsibilityfor reaching Baha’i goals.Encouraging the individual spiritual development of all Baha’is as well as theirparticipation in all aspects of the Baha’i community.Improving the quality of Baha’i community and family life, especially education.Increasing the involvement of Baha’is in society, particularly with regard tosocial and economic development.Increasing the translation, production, distribution, and use of Baha’i literature.Spreading the message of Baha’u’llah to all parts of society and all minority groups.Developing the Baha’i World Center.Building new houses of worship.Working with international organizations such as the United Nations and its divisions.
Baha’u’llah. It has the power to set up rules for the Baha’icommunity and to rule on religious matters not coveredin the writings of Baha’u’llah, ‘Abdu’l-Baha, or ShoghiEffendi. It is located in Haifa, Israel.The Baha’i Community
107
imPlEmEnTing THE CovEnAnTIn the Kitab-i-Aqdas and related writings Baha’u’llah spelled outthe system of institutions through which the covenant he hadcreated would be implemented. First, authority to interpret thesacred texts was vested solely in ‘Abdu’l-Baha, who was designated the Center of Covenant. Second, ‘Abdu’l-Baha was furthercharged with the responsibility for the affairs of the Baha’i community; and third, in due course, as circumstances permitted, athree-level system of Houses of Justice would assume full authority for the administration of any disputes.The instructions that Baha’u’llah himself had left for creatingthe Universal House of Justice were later developed by ‘Abdu’lBaha and Shoghi Effendi. The Universal House of Justice finallycame into being during the Baha’i World Congress in 1963, whenthe first members were elected. All Baha’is must follow the decisions of the Universal House of Justice. However, any decisionmay be amended at a later time by another ruling. In this way thefaith can grow and change with new times and circumstances.
REsPonsiBiliTiEs of THE UnivERsAl HoUsE of JUsTiCEThe tasks of the Universal House of Justice are similar to those ofthe local and national spiritual assemblies but it also works to:• promote peace among nations• ensure that no organization within the Baha’i communityabuses its privileges• safeguard the rights of individuals within the Baha’i Faith• develop the Baha’i World Center and its administrativeprocesses• resolve disputes within the Baha’i World Center• preserve the Baha’i Faith’s sacred texts
ThE Baha’i worLD CEnTErThe Baha’i World Center is in Haifa, Israel. It contains one of theholiest shrines of the Baha’i Faith, the Shrine of the Bab, and alsoits important administrative buildings. These include:108
BAHA’I FAITH

---

2 EXTREMELY RARE BAHAI HANDWRITTEN LETTERS ʻAbdu'l-Bahá SCARCE BAHA'I BAHAI WOW:
$15000.00

Related Items:

Mars 71 (Mars 2) Omnidirectional Folding Communication Antenna EXTREMELY RARE

$40500.00

---

2 EXTREMELY RARE BAHAI HANDWRITTEN LETTERS ʻAbdu'l-Bahá SCARCE BAHA'I BAHAI WOW

$15000.00

---

Extremely large orthosis fossil 6 foot three tall by 2 foot six wide approximate

$15000.00

---